tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-72519086883475580242024-02-07T04:24:52.542-05:00faithlesswondergirlqwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comBlogger244125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-37972796782768011542009-03-13T03:10:00.000-04:002009-03-13T03:11:20.350-04:00Scammers target stimulus payoutsIDENTITY thieves want to steal your life savings, with their latest scam targeting people expecting handouts as part of the Federal Government's stimulus package.<br /><br />The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) is warning of an email scam asking people for personal details, aimed at stealing cash handouts being rolled out in March and April.<br /><br />The Australian Taxation Office (ATO) and Centrelink are preparing to make one-off bonus payments to taxpayers over the coming months as part of the $42bn package announced on February 3.<br /><br />The latest scam, which emerged days after the Government announced the package, sends bogus emails to your inbox asking for personal information, ACCC deputy chairman Peter Kell says.<br /><br />"Overall we're seeing a dramatic increase in scam activity,'' Mr Kell said.<br /><br /> "It is in part due to the general growth of online commerce and communication, but it also seems to be related to the current financial downturn which is creating new opportunities for scammers.''<br /><br /> According to the Australian government's Scamwatch website, the emails are disguised as official communication from the ATO or Centrelink.<br />Related Coverage<br /><br /> * Lovesick: Spurned hacker strikes<br /> * Love that can break the bankCourier Mail, 9 Mar 2009<br /> * Watch out for money scammersHerald Sun, 28 Feb 2009<br /> * Another bushfire scam warningNEWS.com.au, 12 Feb 2009<br /> * Puppy love the latest web scamNEWS.com.au, 11 Feb 2009<br /> * Millions flow in for bushfire victimsHerald Sun, 9 Feb 2009 <br /><br />They ask people to complete and submit an application to receive the bonus payments.<br /><br />"They do seem to be hitting a wide range of families,'' Mr Kell says.<br /><br />Leanne Vale, senior manager of financial crimes with the Association of Building Societies and Credit Unions (ABACUS), says identity thieves can empty your bank accounts with your personal information.<br /><br />"They will take your life savings, what ever they can get from you,'' Ms Vale says.<br /><br />"They'll use whatever means they can to get what they want.''<br /><br />Ms Vale said the scammers rolled out bogus emails in the wake of topical and emotive events such as the Victorian bushfires.<br /><br />Queensland police received reports of people trying to sell raffle tickets and asking for donations on the Gold and Sunshine coasts.<br /><br />"Within days of the (stimulus) package being announced, scammers had a phising email designed to get your personal information,'' she says.<br /><br />"Unfortunately I suspect many people responded to it.''<br /><br />Mr Kell says the main barrier to compiling information on identity and electronic theft is the embarrassment of the victims.<br /><br />He says complaints compiled by the ACCC for internet and identity theft scams each year amount to tens of millions, while the Australian Bureau of Statistics puts the figure at $1bn.<br /><br /> While online scams are as old as the internet, the global financial crisis has see people lose confidence in current investment markets, making them more likely to turn to alternate means of investment.<br /><br />"We see additional offers of easy ways to make money emerging on the web,'' he says.<br /><br />"An example is the significant spike in what looked like free holidays during 2008 and this summer... but they turned out to be nonexistent in some cases or attempts to sell time share in some cases.''<br /><br />"Scams can be very sophisticated and clever these days and you shouldn't be embarrassed about coming forward and reporting it.''<br /><br />Scamwatch.gov.au suggests you never give personal, credit card or bank details over the phone, in response to unsolicited emails, or enter it on any website without making sure the person, organisation or website you are dealing with is genuine.qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-63498502318762442572008-05-02T11:31:00.001-04:002008-05-02T11:31:15.093-04:00 <b></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/July" title="July">July</span> <span href="/wiki/2003" title="2003">2003</span> : <span href="/wiki/January_2003" title="January 2003">January</span> - <span href="/wiki/February_2003" title="February 2003">February</span> - <span href="/wiki/March_2003" title="March 2003">March</span> - <span href="/wiki/April_2003" title="April 2003">April</span> - <span href="/wiki/May_2003" title="May 2003">May</span> - <span href="/wiki/June_2003" title="June 2003">June</span> - <b>July</b> - <span href="/wiki/August_2003" title="August 2003">August</span> - <span href="/wiki/September_2003" title="September 2003">September</span> - <span href="/wiki/October_2003" title="October 2003">October</span> - <span href="/wiki/November_2003" title="November 2003">November</span> - <span href="/wiki/December_2003" title="December 2003">December</span><br /> <span name="Events" id="Events"></span><br /> <b> Events</b><br /> <b>See also:</b><br /> <span name="July_1.2C_2003" id="July_1.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_War_in_Afghanistan_%28July_2003%29" title="Timeline of the War in Afghanistan (July 2003)">Timeline of the War in Afghanistan (July 2003)</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Dodgy_Dossier" title="Dodgy Dossier">Dodgy Dossier</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster"><i>Columbia investigation</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union"><i>EU enlargement</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23" title="Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23"><i>Hong Kong Basic Law</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monkeypox" title="Monkeypox">Monkeypox</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/North_Korea_nuclear_weapons_program" title="North Korea nuclear weapons program"><i>North Korea crisis</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq"><i>Occupation of Iraq</i></span>: <span href="/wiki/2003_Iraq_war_timeline" title="2003 Iraq war timeline"><i>Timeline</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Road_map_for_peace" title="Road map for peace">Road map for peace</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Canada" title="Same-sex marriage in Canada"><i>Same-sex marriage</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome"><i>SARS</i></span>: <span href="/wiki/Progress_of_the_SARS_outbreak" title="Progress of the SARS outbreak"><i>Timeline</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/SCO_v._IBM_Linux_lawsuit" title="SCO v. IBM Linux lawsuit">SCO v. IBM Linux lawsuit</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Trade_war_over_genetically_modified_food" title="Trade war over genetically modified food"><i>US v. EU on GM food</i></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/War_on_Terrorism" title="War on Terrorism">War on Terrorism</span> <b> July 1, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_2.2C_2003" id="July_2.2C_2003"></span><br /> In <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</span>, 500,000 people march to protest the rush into <span href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</span> of <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23" title="Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23">Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23</span>, the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-subversion&action=edit" class="new" title="Anti-subversion">anti-subversion</span> law. Critics say the law is both too broad and too vague.<br /> After many years of controversy, the <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</span> <span href="/wiki/British_House_of_Commons" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</span>, the lower house of parliament, again votes in favour of legislation to ban <span href="/wiki/Fox_hunting" title="Fox hunting">fox hunting</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</span> <span href="/wiki/Premier" title="Premier">Premier</span> <span href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</span>'s government assumed the rotating <span href="/wiki/EU_presidency" title="EU presidency">EU presidency</span>.<br /> In <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</span>, <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadians</span> celebrate <span href="/wiki/Canada_Day" title="Canada Day">Canada Day</span>, their nation's 137th anniversary since confederation on this day in <span href="/wiki/1867" title="1867">1867</span>. <b> July 2, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_3.2C_2003" id="July_3.2C_2003"></span><br /> On taking up the <span href="/wiki/EU_presidency" title="EU presidency">EU presidency</span>, <span href="/wiki/Italian_Prime_Minister" title="Italian Prime Minister">Italian Prime Minister</span> <span href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</span> makes an embarrassing remark, causing an uproar of criticism from the 626-seat European Parliament and the European media, by insulting the German <span href="/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament" title="Member of the European Parliament">MEP</span> <span href="/wiki/Martin_Schulz" title="Martin Schulz">Martin Schulz</span> (<span href="/wiki/SPD" title="SPD">SPD</span>) with the words "Mr. Schulz, I know there is a producer in Italy who is making a film on the <span href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</span> <span href="/wiki/Concentration_camp" title="Concentration camp">concentration camps</span>. I will suggest you for the role of <span href="/wiki/Kapo" title="Kapo">kapo</span>. You'd be perfect."<br /> The <span href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</span> approves two laws that regulate the selling of <span href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">genetically modified food</span> in the <span href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</span> territory, requiring labelling of all GM products (products with more than 0.9 % genetically modified parts) and allowing member states to separate GM food and non-GM food and crops.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</span> announced in <span href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</span>, <span href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</span>, that <span href="/wiki/Vancouver%2C_British_Columbia" title="Vancouver, British Columbia">Vancouver, British Columbia</span> will host the <span href="/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics" title="2010 Winter Olympics">2010 Winter Olympics</span>.<br /> There are reports of the discovery of a possible new type of <span href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particle</span>, a <span href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">pentaquark</span>. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/sci/tech/3034754.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/sci/tech/3034754.stm" rel="nofollow">[1]</span><br /> The results of a <span href="/wiki/Royal_Commission" title="Royal Commission">Royal Commission</span> on renewing the relationship between <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</span> and the province of <span href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</span> is released. <span href="http://www.gov.nf.ca/royalcomm/finalreport/default.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.gov.nf.ca/royalcomm/finalreport/default.html" rel="nofollow">[2]</span> <b> July 3, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_4.2C_2003" id="July_4.2C_2003"></span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organisation" title="World Meteorological Organisation">World Meteorological Organisation</span> publishes a report stating that recent extreme <span href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</span> conditions around the world may mark changes in global climate caused by <span href="/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">global warming</span>. <span href="http://news.independent.co.uk/world/environment/story.jsp?story=421166" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.independent.co.uk/world/environment/story.jsp?story=421166" rel="nofollow">[3]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">President Bush</span> continued to consider whether or not to contribute <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> troops to a <span href="/wiki/UN_peacekeeping" title="UN peacekeeping">peacekeeping</span> mission in <span href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</span>.<span href="http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/03/international/africa/03CND-LIBE.html?hp" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/03/international/africa/03CND-LIBE.html?hp" rel="nofollow">[4]</span> <b> July 4, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_5.2C_2003" id="July_5.2C_2003"></span><br /> A <span href="/wiki/Shia_Muslim" title="Shia Muslim">Shia Muslim</span> <span href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosque</span> in <span href="/wiki/Quetta" title="Quetta">Quetta</span>, <span href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</span> is stormed by armed attackers, killing at least 32 worshippers and wounding 52. <span href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,2763,991878,00.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,2763,991878,00.html" rel="nofollow">[5]</span><br /> A tape, purporting to be of <span href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</span> and to have been made on <span href="/wiki/June_14" title="June 14">June 14</span>, is broadcast on <span href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera" title="Al Jazeera">Al Jazeera</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</span> satellite television station. If it is Saddam, it marks the first public communication from the former <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraqi</span> leader since his disappearance early on in the <span href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">Invasion of Iraq</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Hood_event" title="Hood event">Hood event</span> <b> July 5, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_6.2C_2003" id="July_6.2C_2003"></span><br /> At least 16 people are killed and 40 injured by two female <span href="/wiki/Suicide_bombing" title="Suicide bombing">suicide bombers</span> in an attack at <span href="/wiki/Krylya" title="Krylya">Krylya</span>, a popular music festival, at the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Tushino_airfield&action=edit" class="new" title="Tushino airfield">Tushino airfield</span> near <span href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</span>. The Russian authorities blame an on-going terrorism campaign by <span href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechen</span> rebels; the Chechen government denies any connection to the attacks. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3047386.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3047386.stm" rel="nofollow">[6]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 occupation of Iraq</span>: 7 newly US-trained <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraqi</span> <span href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">policemen</span> are killed and at least 13 are wounded by an <span href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosion</span> while they are marching from training school in <span href="/wiki/Ramadi" title="Ramadi">Ramadi</span>. The American forces overseeing the rebuilding of Iraq's infrastructure, who gave their blessing to the march taking place, blames loyalists to <span href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</span>; some people on the scene blame U.S. forces. It is the first attack on Iraqis collaborating with the invading coalition forces, as opposed to on the forces themselves. <span href="http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/07/05/sprj.irq.main/index.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/07/05/sprj.irq.main/index.html" rel="nofollow">[7]</span><br /> In response to 500,000-strong protests earlier in the week, <span href="/wiki/Tung_Chee-hwa" title="Tung Chee-hwa">Tung Chee-hwa</span>, leader of <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</span>, announces that controversial provisions that are alleged capable of limiting civil liberties in <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law" title="Hong Kong Basic Law">Hong Kong Basic Law</span> <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23" title="Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23">Article 23</span> will be rewritten. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3046894.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3046894.stm" rel="nofollow">[8]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</span> is the last territory to be declared free of <span href="/wiki/SARS" title="SARS">SARS</span> by the <span href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</span>, after 20 days with no new cases reported. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3046984.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3046984.stm" rel="nofollow">[9]</span><br /> Premier <span href="/wiki/John_Hamm" title="John Hamm">John Hamm</span> of <span href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</span>, <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</span>, calls a provincial election for <span href="/wiki/August_2003" title="August 2003">August 5</span>.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/2003_Tour_de_France" title="2003 Tour de France">2003 Tour de France</span> begins in <span href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Wimbledon_championships" title="Wimbledon championships">Wimbledon championships</span>: <span href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</span> repeats as women's champion by beating her sister <span href="/wiki/Venus_Williams" title="Venus Williams">Venus</span>, by scores of 4-6, 6-4, 6-2. <b> July 6, 2003</b><br /> <br /> <ul><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Roger_Federer" title="Roger Federer">Roger Federer</span> makes history, becoming the first <span href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</span> male ever to win the Wimbledon final, defeating <span href="/wiki/Mark_Philippoussis" title="Mark Philippoussis">Mark Philippoussis</span>, 7-6 (7-5), 6-2, 7-6 (7-3)</li><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Martina_Navratilova" title="Martina Navratilova">Martina Navratilova</span> equals her idol, <span href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</span>'s record of 20 Wimbledon titles after winning the mixed doubles final with <span href="/wiki/Leander_Paes" title="Leander Paes">Leander Paes</span> against <span href="/wiki/Andy_Ram" title="Andy Ram">Andy Ram</span> <span href="/wiki/Anastassia_Rodionova" title="Anastassia Rodionova">Anastassia Rodionova</span>, 6-3 6-3. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049972.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049972.stm" rel="nofollow">[10]</span></li><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Todd_Woodbridge" title="Todd Woodbridge">Todd Woodbridge</span> also equals a record, winning with <span href="/wiki/Jonas_Bj%C3%B6rkman" title="Jonas Björkman">Jonas Björkman</span> his 8th men's doubles title by beating <span href="/wiki/Mahesh_Bhupathi" title="Mahesh Bhupathi">Mahesh Bhupathi</span> and <span href="/wiki/Max_Mirnyi" title="Max Mirnyi">Max Mirnyi</span>, 3-6, 6-3, 7-6, 6-3. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3048206.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3048206.stm" rel="nofollow">[11]</span></li><br /> <li><span href="/wiki/Kim_Clijsters" title="Kim Clijsters">Kim Clijsters</span> and <span href="/wiki/Ai_Sugiyama" title="Ai Sugiyama">Ai Sugiyama</span> win the women's doubles final, and so their first Wimbledon title, 6-4, 6-4, against first seeds <span href="/wiki/Virginia_Ruano_Pascual" title="Virginia Ruano Pascual">Virginia Ruano Pascual</span> and <span href="/wiki/Paola_Suarez" title="Paola Suarez">Paola Suarez</span>, as they did in this year's <span href="/wiki/French_Open" title="French Open">French Open</span> final. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049862.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049862.stm" rel="nofollow">[12]</span></li><br /> </ul><br /> <br /> <span name="July_7.2C_2003" id="July_7.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Wimbledon_championships" title="Wimbledon championships">Wimbledon championships</span>:<br /> <span href="/wiki/Roger_Federer" title="Roger Federer">Roger Federer</span> makes history, becoming the first <span href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss</span> male ever to win the Wimbledon final, defeating <span href="/wiki/Mark_Philippoussis" title="Mark Philippoussis">Mark Philippoussis</span>, 7-6 (7-5), 6-2, 7-6 (7-3)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Martina_Navratilova" title="Martina Navratilova">Martina Navratilova</span> equals her idol, <span href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</span>'s record of 20 Wimbledon titles after winning the mixed doubles final with <span href="/wiki/Leander_Paes" title="Leander Paes">Leander Paes</span> against <span href="/wiki/Andy_Ram" title="Andy Ram">Andy Ram</span> <span href="/wiki/Anastassia_Rodionova" title="Anastassia Rodionova">Anastassia Rodionova</span>, 6-3 6-3. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049972.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049972.stm" rel="nofollow">[10]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Todd_Woodbridge" title="Todd Woodbridge">Todd Woodbridge</span> also equals a record, winning with <span href="/wiki/Jonas_Bj%C3%B6rkman" title="Jonas Björkman">Jonas Björkman</span> his 8th men's doubles title by beating <span href="/wiki/Mahesh_Bhupathi" title="Mahesh Bhupathi">Mahesh Bhupathi</span> and <span href="/wiki/Max_Mirnyi" title="Max Mirnyi">Max Mirnyi</span>, 3-6, 6-3, 7-6, 6-3. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3048206.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3048206.stm" rel="nofollow">[11]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Kim_Clijsters" title="Kim Clijsters">Kim Clijsters</span> and <span href="/wiki/Ai_Sugiyama" title="Ai Sugiyama">Ai Sugiyama</span> win the women's doubles final, and so their first Wimbledon title, 6-4, 6-4, against first seeds <span href="/wiki/Virginia_Ruano_Pascual" title="Virginia Ruano Pascual">Virginia Ruano Pascual</span> and <span href="/wiki/Paola_Suarez" title="Paola Suarez">Paola Suarez</span>, as they did in this year's <span href="/wiki/French_Open" title="French Open">French Open</span> final. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049862.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3049862.stm" rel="nofollow">[12]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/The_Bijani_Twins" title="The Bijani Twins">Laden and Laleh Bijani</span>, 29-year-old female <span href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</span> <span href="/wiki/Twin" title="Twin">twins</span> <span href="/wiki/Conjoined_twins" title="Conjoined twins">conjoined</span> at the head, begin their 2 to 4-day-long separation <span href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</span> in <span href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</span>. <span href="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,91164,00.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,91164,00.html" rel="nofollow">[13]</span> <b> July 7, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_8.2C_2003" id="July_8.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</span> fires <span href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservative</span> <span href="/wiki/Talk_show" title="Talk show">talk show</span> host <span href="/wiki/Michael_Savage_%28commentator%29" title="Michael Savage (commentator)">Michael Savage</span> for making several anti-gay remarks towards a prank caller posing as a <span href="/wiki/Homosexual" title="Homosexual">homosexual</span>. Savage, who was angered by aggressive personal attacks made by "East Coast Bob," the prank caller, stated that the caller "should only get <span href="/wiki/AIDS" title="AIDS">AIDS</span> and die". <span href="/wiki/Gay_rights" title="Gay rights">Gay rights</span> group <span href="/wiki/Gay_and_Lesbian_Alliance_Against_Defamation" title="Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation">GLAAD</span> applauds the decision to fire Savage.<span href="http://www.salon.com/news/wire/2003/07/07/savage/index.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.salon.com/news/wire/2003/07/07/savage/index.html" rel="nofollow">[14]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> <span href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Central Command</span> chief <span href="/wiki/Tommy_Franks" title="Tommy Franks">Gen. Tommy Franks</span> retires after 36 years in uniform. Newcomer <span href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</span> <span href="/wiki/General" title="General">Gen.</span> <span href="/wiki/John_Abizaid" title="John Abizaid">John Abizaid</span> is appointed as his replacement. <span href="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,91252,00.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,91252,00.html" rel="nofollow">[15]</span><br /> Thousands of people take part in the first <span href="/wiki/Running_of_the_bulls" title="Running of the bulls">bull run</span> of the annual <span href="/wiki/San_Ferm%C3%ADn" title="San Fermín">San Fermín</span> festival in <span href="/wiki/Pamplona" title="Pamplona">Pamplona</span>, <span href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</span>. No serious injuries or gorings were reported. <span href="http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/europe/07/07/pamplona/index.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/europe/07/07/pamplona/index.html" rel="nofollow">[16]</span><br /> A <span href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">United States district court</span> approves a settlement between <span href="/wiki/WorldCom" title="WorldCom">WorldCom</span> and the <span href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission</span>, in which WorldCom will pay $750 million to investors for its <span href="/wiki/Accounting_scandals" title="Accounting scandals">accounting scandal</span>.<span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3053068.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3053068.stm" rel="nofollow">[17]</span><br /> A rare political drama happens in <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</span>. Chief Executive <span href="/wiki/Tung_Chee_Hwa" title="Tung Chee Hwa">Tung Chee Hwa</span> is forced to postpone the legislation of <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23" title="Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23">Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23</span>, just few hours after he insists the second reading will go on schedule despite the giant protest on July 1. <b> July 8, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_9.2C_2003" id="July_9.2C_2003"></span><br /> A worker at a <span href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin" title="Lockheed Martin">Lockheed Martin</span> <span href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</span> parts factory in <span href="/wiki/Meridian%2C_Mississippi" title="Meridian, Mississippi">Meridian, Mississippi</span> shoots 13 co-workers, killing five, before committing <span href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</span>. Investigators are unsure of the motive.<span href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A29480-2003Jul8.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A29480-2003Jul8.html" rel="nofollow">[18]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ladan_and_Laleh_Bijani" title="Ladan and Laleh Bijani">Ladan and Laleh Bijani</span> die during their unsuccessful separation operation in <span href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</span>. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3055016.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3055016.stm" rel="nofollow">[19]</span><br /> During a visit to the former <span href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave</span>-trading station on <span href="/wiki/Goree_Island" title="Goree Island">Goree Island</span>, off the coast of <span href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</span>, <span href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</span>, <span href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="President of the United States of America">U.S. President</span> <span href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</span> calls slavery "one of the greatest crimes of history", but stops short of an official apology. <span href="http://asia.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=politicsNews&storyID=3054883" class="external autonumber" title="http://asia.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=politicsNews&storyID=3054883" rel="nofollow">[20]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Canada" title="Same-sex marriage in Canada">Same-sex marriage in Canada</span>: A <span href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</span> court rules that <span href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">same-sex</span> couples may <span href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">get married</span> in that province, effective immediately. BC becomes the second <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadian</span> province, and second political division in the Western Hemisphere, to legalize same-sex marriage. This decision is similar to the <span href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</span> decision on <span href="/wiki/June_2003" title="June 2003">June 10, 2003</span>. <span href="http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2003/07/08/130210-cp.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2003/07/08/130210-cp.html" rel="nofollow">[21]</span><br /> A <span href="/wiki/Sudan_Airways" title="Sudan Airways">Sudan Airways</span> <span href="/wiki/Boeing_737" title="Boeing 737">Boeing 737</span> <span href="/wiki/Jet_airliner" title="Jet airliner">jetliner</span> crashes in <span href="/wiki/Port_Sudan" title="Port Sudan">Port Sudan</span>, killing 116 passengers. A toddler of two or three years is the sole survivor but dies later of his wounds. <span href="http://asia.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=3052818" class="external autonumber" title="http://asia.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=3052818" rel="nofollow">[22]</span>, <span href="http://famulus.msnbc.com/FamulusIntl/ap07-10-122117.asp?reg=AFRICA" class="external autonumber" title="http://famulus.msnbc.com/FamulusIntl/ap07-10-122117.asp?reg=AFRICA" rel="nofollow">[23]</span> <b> July 9, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_10.2C_2003" id="July_10.2C_2003"></span><br /> The ferry <span href="/wiki/MV_Nasrin-1" title="MV Nasrin-1">MV Nasrin-1</span> capsizes and sinks near <span href="/w/index.php?title=Chandpore&action=edit" class="new" title="Chandpore">Chandpore</span> in <span href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</span>. The whereabouts of most of the approximately 700 passengers is unknown. <span href="http://www.news24.com/News24/World/News/0,,2-10-1462_1384867,00.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.news24.com/News24/World/News/0,,2-10-1462_1384867,00.html" rel="nofollow">[24]</span><br /> The U.S. government announces that two more officials of the defeated Iraqi government on the <span href="/wiki/U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis" title="U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis">U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis</span> were taken into custody on Tuesday. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Mizban_Khadr_al-Hadi&action=edit" class="new" title="Mizban Khadr al-Hadi">Mizban Khadr al-Hadi</span> was a high-ranking member of Iraq's <span href="/wiki/Baath_Party" title="Baath Party">Baath Party</span> Regional Command and Revolutionary Command Council, and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Mahmud_Dhiyab_al-Ahmad&action=edit" class="new" title="Mahmud Dhiyab al-Ahmad">Mahmud Dhiyab al-Ahmad</span> was a former Interior Minister.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Nike%2C_Inc." title="Nike, Inc.">Nike</span> announces an agreement to <span href="/wiki/Purchasing" title="Purchasing">purchase</span> <span href="/wiki/Converse_Shoes" title="Converse Shoes">Converse</span>; for <span href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</span>305M. <b> July 10, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_11.2C_2003" id="July_11.2C_2003"></span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Diana%2C_Princess_of_Wales_Memorial_Fund" title="Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund">Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund</span> announces that on legal advice it has frozen its funds as it faces a demand for £15 million ($25 million) damages for alleged <i>malicious prosecution</i> from the <i><span href="/wiki/Franklin_Mint" title="Franklin Mint">Franklin Mint</span></i> in the US. The Mint had won a courtcase over its right to manufacture a <span href="/wiki/Diana%2C_Princess_of_Wales" title="Diana, Princess of Wales">Diana, Princess of Wales</span> lookalike doll. Hundreds of charities are expected face financial difficulties as a result of the freeze. Arc Charity Chief Executive James Churchill says "I hope that the Franklin Mint Corporation is aware of the damage that their action is causing to groups of vulnerable young people all over the world."<br /> Former International Development Secretary <span href="/wiki/Clare_Short" title="Clare Short">Clare Short</span> urges that British Prime Minister <span href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</span> voluntarily leave the premiership. Blair, dining with <span href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</span> in London's Guildhall, makes no comment.<br /> Gay rights campaigner <span href="/wiki/Peter_Tatchell" title="Peter Tatchell">Peter Tatchell</span> claims the second most senior <span href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</span> <span href="/wiki/Cleric" title="Cleric">cleric</span>, Archbishop Hope of York, is gay. The Archbishop had previously described his sexuality as a "grey area". The claim follows the row over a nomination of an openly gay canon to a bishopric in <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span> and his withdrawal after attacks from conservative groups within the Anglican communion.<br /> <span href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</span> reports the discovery of <span href="/wiki/PSR_B1620-26c" title="PSR B1620-26c">PSR B1620-26c</span> (unofficially dubbed <i>Methuselah</i>), the oldest <span href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planet" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planet</span> yet discovered. The planet, which is estimated to be 12.7 billion years old, is orbiting the pulsar <span href="/wiki/PSR_B1620-26" title="PSR B1620-26">PSR B1620-26</span> in the core of the ancient globular star cluster <span href="/wiki/NGC_6121" title="NGC 6121">M4</span>, located 5,600 light-years away in the summer constellation <span href="/wiki/Scorpius" title="Scorpius">Scorpius</span>. <span href="http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/2003/19/" class="external autonumber" title="http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/2003/19/" rel="nofollow">[25]</span> <b> July 12, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_13.2C_2003" id="July_13.2C_2003"></span><br /> The intelligence service of the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> says that the <span href="/wiki/CIA" title="CIA">CIA</span>'s head, <span href="/wiki/George_Tenet" title="George Tenet">George Tenet</span>, accepted <span href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</span>'s speech in <span href="/wiki/January_2003" title="January 2003">January</span>, which included wrong information of <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</span>'s plans to buy <span href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</span> from <span href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</span>. <span href="http://www.helsinginsanomat.fi/tuoreet/artikkeli/1057922088385" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.helsinginsanomat.fi/tuoreet/artikkeli/1057922088385" rel="nofollow">[26]</span> The office of <span href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</span> <span href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</span> responded that it stands by its belief that <span href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</span> attempted to buy <span href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African</span> uranium, claiming that it cannot share its information with the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> because it comes from "foreign intelligence sources." <span href="http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=540&e=3&u=/ap/20030713/ap_on_re_mi_ea/britain_iraq" class="external autonumber" title="http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=540&e=3&u=/ap/20030713/ap_on_re_mi_ea/britain_iraq" rel="nofollow">[27]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Baseball" title="Baseball">Baseball</span>: <span href="/wiki/Barry_Bonds" title="Barry Bonds">Barry Bonds</span> ties the 63-year-old record of <span href="/wiki/Jimmie_Foxx" title="Jimmie Foxx">Jimmie Foxx</span> by homering against the <span href="/wiki/Arizona_Diamondbacks" title="Arizona Diamondbacks">Arizona Diamondbacks</span>' <span href="/wiki/Curt_Schilling" title="Curt Schilling">Curt Schilling</span>, becoming the second player in <span href="/wiki/Major_League_Baseball" title="Major League Baseball">Major League Baseball</span> to hit at least 30 <span href="/wiki/Home_run" title="Home run">home runs</span> in 12 consecutive seasons. <b> July 13, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_14.2C_2003" id="July_14.2C_2003"></span><br /> A national governing council meets for the first time in <span href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</span>, as <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</span> troops launch a new assault on anti-coalition elements. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3062037.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3062037.stm" rel="nofollow">[28]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Yahoo%21" title="Yahoo!">Yahoo!</span> announces that it will buy <span href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</span> search listing service <span href="/w/index.php?title=Overture_Services&action=edit" class="new" title="Overture Services">Overture Services</span> for $1.63 billion in cash and stock.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</span> media, following tip-offs from the <span href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israeli</span> and British Intelligence Services, state that <span href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_%C3%93_Muireag%C3%A1in" title="Seán Ó Muireagáin">Seán Ó Muireagáin</span> of the <span href="/wiki/Real_IRA" title="Real IRA">Real IRA</span> had been captured in Israel. <b> July 14, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_15.2C_2003" id="July_15.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</span> declares a <span href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</span> due to an outbreak of the <span href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile virus</span> <span href="http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/21510/newsDate/15-Jul-2003/story.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/21510/newsDate/15-Jul-2003/story.htm" rel="nofollow">(Planetark.org)</span>.<br /> The United States <span href="/wiki/Office_of_Federal_Housing_Enterprise_Oversight" title="Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight">Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight</span> announces an investigation into the accounting of America's two largest mortgage firms <span href="/wiki/Freddie_Mac" title="Freddie Mac">Freddie Mac</span> and <span href="/wiki/Fannie_Mae" title="Fannie Mae">Fannie Mae</span> <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3066573.stm" class="external text" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3066573.stm" rel="nofollow">(BBC)</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Pierce_Brosnan" title="Pierce Brosnan">Pierce Brosnan</span> is to be made an honorary <span href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" title="Officer of the Order of the British Empire">OBE</span> <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/3065797.stm" class="external text" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/3065797.stm" rel="nofollow">(BBC)</span>. <b> July 15, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_16.2C_2003" id="July_16.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Scott_McClellan" title="Scott McClellan">Scott McClellan</span> replaces <span href="/wiki/Ari_Fleischer" title="Ari Fleischer">Ari Fleischer</span>, as <span href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</span> <span href="/wiki/Press_secretary" title="Press secretary">press secretary</span>. <span href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/07/20030715-2.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/07/20030715-2.html" rel="nofollow">[29]</span> <b> July 16, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_17.2C_2003" id="July_17.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_%C3%93_Muireag%C3%A1in" title="Seán Ó Muireagáin">Seán Ó Muireagáin</span>, a <span href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Irish</span> <span href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalist</span>, arrested by <span href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</span> and held for five days without legal representation in a case of mistaken identity, is released and leaves Israel. The affair causes considerable embarrassment to the Israeli and <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</span> secret services, the former having arrested Ó Mureagáin on the advice of the latter, who claimed incorrectly that he was a <span href="/wiki/Real_IRA" title="Real IRA">Real IRA</span> man with the same name. In the confused aftermath, the Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman suggests that Ó Muireagáin may have been guilty, while Prime Minister <span href="/wiki/Ariel_Sharon" title="Ariel Sharon">Sharon</span>'s spokesman states categorically that he was innocent and the entire affair an error. He claims that Ó Muireagáin is a former convicted <span href="/wiki/Provisional_IRA" title="Provisional IRA">Provisional IRA</span> <span href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist</span>.<br /> A <span href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</span> takes place in <span href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</span>; the <span href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</span> <span href="/wiki/Maria_das_Neves" title="Maria das Neves">Maria das Neves</span> is arrested. <span href="http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030716.wsaotome0716/BNStory/International/" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030716.wsaotome0716/BNStory/International/" rel="nofollow">[30]</span><br /> Following the 500,000-people protest on July 1, the government of <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</span> is hit by two resignations of high-ranking officials in one day. One is the Financial Secretary <span href="/wiki/Antony_Leung" title="Antony Leung">Antony Leung</span> and the other is the Security Secretary <span href="/wiki/Regina_Ip" title="Regina Ip">Regina Ip</span> who was in charge of the controversial <span href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23" title="Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23">Article 23</span>. <span href="http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000080&sid=ak0n4Kcq8NgM&refer=asia" class="external autonumber" title="http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000080&sid=ak0n4Kcq8NgM&refer=asia" rel="nofollow">[31]</span><br /> Noor Fatima, a two-and-a-half-year-old <span href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistani</span> girl was successfully operated on in an <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</span> hospital today to plug holes in her heart, making her father term it, "the resumption of a new era of friendship betweIen India and Pakistan".<br /> <span href="/wiki/Phil_Fontaine" title="Phil Fontaine">Phil Fontaine</span> is elected Grand Chief of the <span href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</span> of <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</span>.<br /> An 86-year-old man accidentally hits the accelerator instead of the brake at a <span href="/wiki/Farmer%27s_market" title="Farmer's market">farmer's market</span> in <span href="/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California" title="Santa Monica, California">Santa Monica, California</span>, driving his car through a closed-off street and killing at least 10 people (including a 3-year-old girl and a 7-month-old boy) and injuring over 50 others. One of the dead is the daughter-in-law of actor <span href="/wiki/Dennis_Weaver" title="Dennis Weaver">Dennis Weaver</span>.<br /> An Australian research team led by <span href="/w/index.php?title=Graham_Giles&action=edit" class="new" title="Graham Giles">Graham Giles</span> of <span href="/w/index.php?title=The_Cancer_Council&action=edit" class="new" title="The Cancer Council">The Cancer Council</span> published a medical study which concluded that frequent <span href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">masturbation</span> by males may help prevent the development of <span href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</span>. <b> July 17, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_18.2C_2003" id="July_18.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Canada" title="Same-sex marriage in Canada">Same-sex marriage in Canada</span>: The federal government releases its draft bill to extend marriage rights to same-sex couples while protecting the rights of clergy not to perform marriages that run counter to their religious beliefs. The government will seek a reference from the <span href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</span> to ensure the bill is constitutional. <span href="http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2003/07/17/marriage_030717" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2003/07/17/marriage_030717" rel="nofollow">[32]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</span> declines a <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> request to send an occupation force to <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</span>. <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> Envoy assures that Indo-US relations will not be hampered by the refusal.<br /> In a press conference in <span href="/wiki/Belfast" title="Belfast">Belfast</span>, <span href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalist</span> <span href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_%C3%93_Muireag%C3%A1in" title="Seán Ó Muireagáin">Seán Ó Muireagáin</span> denies <span href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israeli</span> claims that suspected Real IRA activist. He states that he is not, and never has been, a member or supporter of the <span href="/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army" title="Irish Republican Army">IRA</span>. Israel repeats that the arrest of Ó Muireagáin was "unfortunate" but refuses to apologise. Israel's treatment of Ó Muireagáin is strongly criticised in <span href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</span>. <span href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_and_Labour_Party" title="Social Democratic and Labour Party">SDLP</span> ex-minister <span href="/wiki/Sean_Farren" title="Sean Farren">Sean Farren</span> states that Ó Muireagáin is "well known and respected" in <span href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Evangelist" title="Evangelist">Evangelist</span> and former <span href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">United States Presidential</span> candidate <span href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Pat Robertson</span> announces his "massive prayer offensive" dubbed "Operation Supreme Court Freedom", asking Americans to pray that at least three <span href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</span> justices retire so that the court can be filled with conservative justices who will overturn Supreme Court rulings on <span href="/wiki/School_prayer" title="School prayer">school prayer</span>, <span href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</span> and <span href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</span>.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Uniting_Church_in_Australia" title="Uniting Church in Australia">Uniting Church in Australia</span> votes to officially recognise and approve of <span href="/wiki/Homosexual" title="Homosexual">homosexual</span> <span href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</span>. (<span href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/s904337.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/s904337.htm" rel="nofollow">ABC (Australia) news report</span>) <b> July 18, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_19.2C_2003" id="July_19.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</span> <span href="/wiki/Basketball" title="Basketball">Basketball</span>: <span href="/wiki/Eagle_County%2C_Colorado" title="Eagle County, Colorado">Eagle County, Colorado</span> District Attorney Mark Hurlbert announces that <span href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lakers" title="Los Angeles Lakers">Los Angeles Lakers</span> star <span href="/wiki/Kobe_Bryant" title="Kobe Bryant">Kobe Bryant</span> has been charged with one count of felony sexual assault, stemming from a <span href="/wiki/June_30" title="June 30">June 30</span> incident at a gated resort involving a 19-year-old woman.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Corpse" title="Corpse">corpse</span> of Dr. <span href="/wiki/David_Kelly" title="David Kelly">David Kelly</span> is discovered, it appears that he committed <span href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</span>. Kelly was a <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</span> government advisor involved in the <i><span href="/wiki/September_Dossier" title="September Dossier">September Dossier</span></i> investigation relating to the <span href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 war on Iraq</span>. Former Labour Junior Minister <span href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Glenda Jackson</span> calls for <span href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Prime Minister Blair</span>'s resignation and a <span href="/wiki/Mail_on_Sunday" title="Mail on Sunday">Mail on Sunday</span> reporter asks, "Do you have blood on your hands. Prime Minister?" Blair refuses to comment, as does <span href="/wiki/Alastair_Campbell" title="Alastair Campbell">Communications Director Campbell</span>. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3079787.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3079787.stm" rel="nofollow">[33]</span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</span> passes a defense appropriations bill which explicitly forbids the <span href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</span> from spending any money on <span href="/wiki/Terrorist_Information_Awareness" title="Terrorist Information Awareness">Terrorist Information Awareness</span> research, effectively putting an end to the <span href="/wiki/Information_Awareness_Office" title="Information Awareness Office">Information Awareness Office</span>. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3076849.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3076849.stm" rel="nofollow">[34]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Future_of_Europe" title="Convention on the Future of Europe">Convention on the Future of Europe</span> finished its work and proposed the first <span href="/wiki/European_constitution" title="European constitution">European constitution</span>. <b> July 19, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_20.2C_2003" id="July_20.2C_2003"></span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</span> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Governing_Council_of_Iraq&action=edit" class="new" title="Governing Council of Iraq">Governing Council of Iraq</span> announces that it has failed to select a new <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraqi</span> <span href="/wiki/President" title="President">President</span>. <span href="http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2003-07-19-iraq-council_x.htm" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2003-07-19-iraq-council_x.htm" rel="nofollow">[35]</span><br /> Doctors in <span href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</span> <span href="/wiki/Transplant" title="Transplant">transplant</span> a human <span href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</span> at <span href="/wiki/Vienna_General_Hospital" title="Vienna General Hospital">Vienna General Hospital</span>. <span href="http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2003/07/21/transplant_tongue030721" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2003/07/21/transplant_tongue030721" rel="nofollow">[36]</span> <b> July 20, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_21.2C_2003" id="July_21.2C_2003"></span><br /> 16 people are injured after two <span href="/wiki/Bomb" title="Bomb">bombs</span> explode outside <span href="/w/index.php?title=Tax_office&action=edit" class="new" title="Tax office">tax offices</span> in <span href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</span>, <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span>. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3081025.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3081025.stm" rel="nofollow">[37]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Richard_Sambrook" title="Richard Sambrook">Richard Sambrook</span>, the Director of <span href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</span> <span href="/wiki/News" title="News">News</span> reveals that <span href="/wiki/David_Kelly" title="David Kelly">Dr. David Kelly</span> was the source of claims that <span href="/wiki/Downing_Street" title="Downing Street">Downing Street</span> had "sexed up" the <span href="/wiki/September_Dossier" title="September Dossier">September Dossier</span>. (see also: <span href="/wiki/Dodgy_Dossier" title="Dodgy Dossier">Dodgy Dossier</span>)<br /> Former <span href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Ugandan</span> <span href="/wiki/Dictator" title="Dictator">dictator</span> <span href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</span> is in a <span href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</span> at a <span href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospital</span> in <span href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</span>, <span href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</span>, and Uganda has refused permission for him to return.<br /> <span href="/wiki/British_Open_%28golf%29" title="British Open (golf)">British Open (golf)</span>: Rookie <span href="/wiki/Ben_Curtis_%28golfer%29" title="Ben Curtis (golfer)">Ben Curtis</span>, ranked 396th in the world, becomes the first golfer to win a major golf tournament in the first attempt in more than 90 years.<br /> 14 people - a <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</span> family of 12 who had chartered the plane and the <span href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</span> crew of 2 - die when a light plane crashes into <span href="/wiki/Mount_Kenya" title="Mount Kenya">Mount Kenya</span> after taking off from <span href="/wiki/Nairobi" title="Nairobi">Nairobi</span> for <span href="/w/index.php?title=Buffalo_Springs_National_Reserve&action=edit" class="new" title="Buffalo Springs National Reserve">Buffalo Springs National Reserve</span> in northern <span href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</span>. <span href="http://www.hipakistan.com/en/detail.php?newsId=en33126&F_catID=&f_type=source" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.hipakistan.com/en/detail.php?newsId=en33126&F_catID=&f_type=source" rel="nofollow">[38]</span> <b> July 21, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_22.2C_2003" id="July_22.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="http://www.npr.org" class="external text" title="http://www.npr.org" rel="nofollow">npr.org</span>'s <i><span href="/wiki/All_Things_Considered" title="All Things Considered">All Things Considered</span></i> program aired a humorous article on the <span href="http://discover.npr.org/rundowns/rundown.jhtml?prgDate=07/21/2003&prgId=2" class="external text" title="http://discover.npr.org/rundowns/rundown.jhtml?prgDate=07/21/2003&prgId=2" rel="nofollow">Wiki phenomenon</span>, and on Wikipedia.org.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Jong-Wook_Lee" title="Jong-Wook Lee">Jong-Wook Lee</span> becomes the new Director-General of the <span href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</span>.<br /> <i><span href="/wiki/SCO_v._IBM_Linux_lawsuit" title="SCO v. IBM Linux lawsuit">SCO v. IBM Linux lawsuit</span>:</i> <span href="/wiki/SCO_Group" title="SCO Group">SCO Group</span> announces that it intends to sell binary-only licences to use the free <span href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</span> operating system which will remove the threat of litigation from licence-holders. Linux advocates react by stating that SCO has no basis for this action, and that doing this may cause SCO to forfeit their rights under the <span href="/wiki/GNU_GPL" title="GNU GPL">GNU GPL</span> to use or distribute Linux or Linux-derived code in any form. <span href="http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/030721/lam075_1.html" class="external text" title="http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/030721/lam075_1.html" rel="nofollow">SCO press release</span> <span href="http://news.com.com/1601-2-1027557.html" class="external text" title="http://news.com.com/1601-2-1027557.html" rel="nofollow">CNet story</span><br /> In <span href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</span>, 25 people are seriously injured after a roof collapse in a <span href="/wiki/Vega_Alta%2C_Puerto_Rico" title="Vega Alta, Puerto Rico">Vega Alta, Puerto Rico</span> mall.<span href="http://vocero.com/noticia.asp?n=30873&d=7/22/2003" class="external autonumber" title="http://vocero.com/noticia.asp?n=30873&d=7/22/2003" rel="nofollow">[39]</span> (in <span href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</span>) <b> July 22, 2003</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/John_Manley_%28politician%29" title="John Manley (politician)">John Manley</span>, <span href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Canada" title="Deputy Prime Minister of Canada">Deputy Prime Minister of Canada</span>, drops out of the race to succeed <span href="/wiki/Jean_Chr%C3%A9tien" title="Jean Chrétien">Jean Chrétien</span> as leader of the <span href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberal Party of Canada</span> and <span href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada" title="Prime Minister of Canada">Prime Minister</span> after conceding he cannot catch front-runner <span href="/wiki/Paul_Martin%2C_Jr." title="Paul Martin, Jr.">Paul Martin, Jr.</span>. <b> July 23, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_24.2C_2003" id="July_24.2C_2003"></span><br /> <i><span href="/wiki/Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</span></i>, a <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</span> newspaper, publishes an <span href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">opinion poll</span> which claims that almost one in three Germans under the age of 30 believe the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> government "could have ordered the <span href="/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11 attacks</span> [on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon] itself". 1000 people took part in the survey.<br /> <span href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</span> officials announce that over 110% of the required signatures to force a recall election of Governor <span href="/wiki/Gray_Davis" title="Gray Davis">Gray Davis</span> are in setting the stage for what will be the first gubernatorial recall election in the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> in 82 years.<span href="http://apnews.excite.com/article/20030724/D7SFNDJ80.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://apnews.excite.com/article/20030724/D7SFNDJ80.html" rel="nofollow">[40]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</span> <span href="/wiki/New_York_City_Council" title="New York City Council">Councilman</span> from <span href="/wiki/Brooklyn%2C_New_York" title="Brooklyn, New York">Brooklyn</span>, <span href="/wiki/James_E._Davis" title="James E. Davis">James E. Davis</span> is assassinated at <span href="/wiki/New_York_City_Hall" title="New York City Hall">City Hall</span> by former political opponent <span href="/wiki/Othniel_Askew" title="Othniel Askew">Othniel Askew</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Zahra_Kazemi" title="Zahra Kazemi">Zahra Kazemi</span> affair: <span href="/wiki/Bill_Graham_%28politician%29" title="Bill Graham (politician)">Bill Graham</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Canada%29" title="Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canada)">Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs</span>, announces that Ms. Kazemi's body has been buried in Iran, contrary to her family's wishes. Consequently, <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</span> has recalled its ambassador to <span href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</span>.<br /> The Minister of Justice in <span href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</span>, <span href="/wiki/Johannes_Koskinen" title="Johannes Koskinen">Johannes Koskinen</span>, said that there could be legalized <span href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</span> for example for <span href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">handicapped</span> people. He got very angry response of organizations for handicapped. 66% of people in <span href="/wiki/Ilta-Sanomat" title="Ilta-Sanomat">Ilta-Sanomat</span> newspaper's readers said that prostitution must be under state control. <b> July 24, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_25.2C_2003" id="July_25.2C_2003"></span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span>' provisional authority in <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</span> releases photos of what are presumably the dead bodies of <span href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday</span> and <span href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay Hussein</span> in an attempt to show the Iraqi people proof that the two were actually killed in a U.S. military operation.<span href="http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/07/24/sprj.irq.sons/index.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/07/24/sprj.irq.sons/index.html" rel="nofollow">[41]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</span> lieutenant governor <span href="/wiki/Cruz_Bustamante" title="Cruz Bustamante">Cruz Bustamante</span> announces that governor <span href="/wiki/Gray_Davis" title="Gray Davis">Gray Davis</span> will face a recall election on <span href="/wiki/October_7" title="October 7">October 7</span>. This will be the second gubernatorial recall election in the <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> history (the first occurred 82 years beforehand).<span href="http://www.sacbee.com/content/politics/story/7091491p-8039220c.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.sacbee.com/content/politics/story/7091491p-8039220c.html" rel="nofollow">[42]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</span> officials have decided to attempt a restoration of <span href="/wiki/Michelangelo_Buonarroti" title="Michelangelo Buonarroti">Michelangelo</span>'s <i><span href="/wiki/Michelangelo%27s_David" title="Michelangelo's David">David</span></i> using distilled <span href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</span>. <span href="http://www.cbc.ca/artsCanada/stories/davidbath240703" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.cbc.ca/artsCanada/stories/davidbath240703" rel="nofollow">[43]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Colin_McMillan" title="Colin McMillan">Colin McMillan</span>, President <span href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush</span>'s nominee for the post of <span href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">United States Secretary of the Navy</span>, dies of an apparently self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head.<br /> <i><span href="/wiki/Jueves_negro" title="Jueves negro">Jueves negro</span>:</i> Violent rioting follows on from political demonstrations in <span href="/wiki/Guatemala_City" title="Guatemala City">Guatemala City</span>. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3094857.stm" class="external text" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3094857.stm" rel="nofollow">(BBC)</span> <b> July 25, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_26.2C_2003" id="July_26.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</span> <span href="/wiki/Swimmer" title="Swimmer">swimmer</span> <span href="/wiki/Michael_Phelps" title="Michael Phelps">Michael Phelps</span> breaks <span href="/wiki/World_record" title="World record">world records</span> in the <span href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterfly</span> and <span href="/wiki/Individual_medley" title="Individual medley">individual medley</span> at the <span href="/wiki/World_Swimming_Championships" title="World Swimming Championships">World Swimming Championships</span> in Barcelona to become the first man ever to break two records at a single meet. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/front_page/3097233.stm" class="external text" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/front_page/3097233.stm" rel="nofollow">(BBC)</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Palestinian_Prime_Minister" title="Palestinian Prime Minister">Palestinian Prime Minister</span> <span href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Abbas" title="Mahmoud Abbas">Mahmoud Abbas</span> meets with <span href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">US President</span> <span href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</span> at the <span href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</span> <span href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/07/20030725-6.html" class="external text" title="http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/07/20030725-6.html" rel="nofollow">(White House press release)</span>. <img src="http://www.fengshuiweb.co.uk/images/xuankongjuly1.jpg" alt="July 2003" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> July 26, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_27.2C_2003" id="July_27.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S.-led occupation of Iraq</span>: Three <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</span> <span href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">soldiers</span> are killed while guarding a Baquouba children's hospital northeast of <span href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</span>, <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</span> bringing the number of US troops killed in combat to 161, 14 more than the <span href="/wiki/1991" title="1991">1991</span> <span href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</span> total. <span href="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,92997,00.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,92997,00.html" rel="nofollow">[44]</span> <b> July 27, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_28.2C_2003" id="July_28.2C_2003"></span><br /> Comedian <span href="/wiki/Bob_Hope" title="Bob Hope">Bob Hope</span> dies in his sleep <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/showbiz/3103751.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/showbiz/3103751.stm" rel="nofollow">[45]</span><br /> A group of approximately 50 rogue soldiers from the Armed Forces of the Philippines seizes a portion of a shopping mall and the adjacent hotel in <span href="/wiki/Makati_City" title="Makati City">Makati City</span>, <span href="/wiki/Metro_Manila" title="Metro Manila">Metro Manila</span> in the <span href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</span> demanding President <span href="/wiki/Gloria_Macapagal-Arroyo" title="Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo">Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo</span>'s resignation. They claim to have surrounded the occupied zones with explosives and have temporarily held several people in the hotel, including <span href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</span> <span href="/wiki/Ambassador_%28diplomacy%29" title="Ambassador (diplomacy)">Ambassador</span> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ruth_Pierce&action=edit" class="new" title="Ruth Pierce">Ruth Pierce</span>. The group is said by some officials to be connected to ousted President <span href="/wiki/Joseph_Estrada" title="Joseph Estrada">Joseph Estrada</span> and oppositionist Senator <span href="/wiki/Gregorio_Honasan" title="Gregorio Honasan">Gregorio Honasan</span>, who staged several <span href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup</span> attempts in the late 1980s. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3099797.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3099797.stm" rel="nofollow">[46]</span> <span href="http://ruby.inq7.net/specialfeatures/coup/whats/?offset=0" class="external autonumber" title="http://ruby.inq7.net/specialfeatures/coup/whats/?offset=0" rel="nofollow">[47]</span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</span> reports that an extensive investigation of <span href="/wiki/Loch_Ness" title="Loch Ness">Loch Ness</span> by a BBC team, using 600 separate sonar beams, found no trace of any "sea monster" in the loch. Loch Ness is a popular tourist attraction because of the rumors surrounding an alleged monster or <span href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">plesiosaur</span> populating the lake (see <span href="/wiki/Loch_Ness_Monster" title="Loch Ness Monster">Loch Ness Monster</span>). The BBC team stated that it is now conclusively proven that "Nessie" does not exist. <span href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3096839.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3096839.stm" rel="nofollow">[48]</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/2003_Tour_de_France" title="2003 Tour de France">2003 Tour de France</span>: <span href="/wiki/Lance_Armstrong" title="Lance Armstrong">Lance Armstrong</span> wins his 5th consecutive <span href="/wiki/Tour_de_France" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</span>. <b> July 28, 2003</b><br /> <span name="July_29.2C_2003" id="July_29.2C_2003"></span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</span> appoints <span href="/wiki/Harri_Holkeri" title="Harri Holkeri">Harri Holkeri</span> to head the temporary civilian administration <span href="/wiki/UNMIK" title="UNMIK">UNMIK</span> in <span href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</span>.<br /> Ambassador <span href="/wiki/Ole_W%C3%B8hlers_Olsen" title="Ole Wøhlers Olsen">Ole Wøhlers Olsen</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslim</span> <span href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</span> coordinator for the U.S.-led provisional authority in southern <span href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</span> resigns unexpectingly, to be replaced by Sir <span href="/w/index.php?title=Hilary_Synnott&action=edit" class="new" title="Hilary Synnott">Hilary Synnott</span>, currently the <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</span> High Commissioner to <span href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</span>. Ambassador Olsen, who has been critical of the lack of support for his reconstruction efforts, declared the British and Danish foreign services have chosen to replace him now instead of in October, as earlier planned, stating that he himself had been prepared to continue his work in <span href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</span>. <span href="http://www.berlingske.dk/forside/artikel:aid=343592:fid=100100020" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.berlingske.dk/forside/artikel:aid=343592:fid=100100020" rel="nofollow">[49]</span> <b> July 30, 2003</b><br /> In Puebla, Puebla, Mexico, the last production Volkswagen Beetle, nicknamed El Rey, rolls off the production line.<br /> <span name="July_31.2C_2003" id="July_31.2C_2003"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Jaafari" title="Ibrahim al-Jaafari">Ibrahim al-Jaafari</span>, a Shi'ite Muslim and chief spokesman for the <span href="/wiki/Islamic_Dawa_Party" title="Islamic Dawa Party">Islamic Dawa Party</span>, which was banned during Saddam's rule, is picked to be the first of nine men who will serve one-month stints leading postwar Iraq. He will hold the presidency in August.<br /> A <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadian</span> concert, <i><span href="/wiki/Molson_Canadian_Rocks_for_Toronto" title="Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto">Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto</span></i>, attended by 450,000 people, takes place to show that <span href="/wiki/SARS" title="SARS">SARS</span> is no longer in <span href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</span> and to raise money for health care and hospitality workers affected by the outbreak. qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-13845923986779601732008-05-01T11:09:00.001-04:002008-05-01T11:09:36.943-04:00<img src="http://www.noolmusic.com/z_pics/eagles_-_take_it_to_the_limit_-_music_video.jpg" alt="Limit (music)" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> In music, a <b>limit</b> is a number measuring the harmony of an <span href="/wiki/Interval_%28music%29" title="Interval (music)">interval</span>. The lower the number, the more <span href="/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance" title="Consonance and dissonance">consonant</span> the interval is considered to be. There are two different kinds of limits: prime limits and odd limits.<br /> The concept of limit only makes sense when applied to intervals appearing in the <span href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_%28music%29" title="Harmonic series (music)">harmonic series</span> which can be represented as the ratios of whole numbers; its use in describing intervals in <span href="/wiki/Equal_temperament" title="Equal temperament">equal temperament</span> rests on the fact that these intervals closely approximate intervals found in the harmonic series. In <span href="/wiki/Just_intonation" title="Just intonation">just intonation</span>, any given interval can be expressed as the ratio between two frequencies, such as 4:3 for the <span href="/wiki/Perfect_fourth" title="Perfect fourth">perfect fourth</span> or 10:9 for the <span href="/wiki/Minor_tone" title="Minor tone">minor tone</span>. The limits for such intervals are defined as follows:<br /> The <b>odd limit</b> only regards <span href="/wiki/Pitch_class" title="Pitch class">pitch classes</span>. (That is, it treats pitches the same when they differ only in the octave.) Mathematically, this is achieved by dividing any even numbers in the fraction repeatedly by 2 until both <span href="/wiki/Numerator" title="Numerator">numerator</span> and <span href="/wiki/Denominator" title="Denominator">denominator</span> are odd. The limit is then defined as the bigger number of the two. Thus the odd limit of the perfect fourth is 3, while the minor tone has an odd limit of 9.<br /> The <b>prime limit</b> can be seen as a generalization that does not favor the number 2. It is defined as the largest <span href="/wiki/Prime_number" title="Prime number">prime number</span> in the <span href="/wiki/Integer_factorization" title="Integer factorization">factorization</span> of both numerator and denominator. That is, in <span href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theoretic</span> terms, it measures the <span href="/wiki/Smooth_number" title="Smooth number">smoothness</span> of the numerator and denominator. The prime limit of the perfect fourth is 3 (the same as the odd limit), but the minor tone has a prime limit of 5, because 9 can be factorized into 3×3, and 10 into 2×5.<br /> <span name="Prime_limits.2C_scales_and_microtonal_music" id="Prime_limits.2C_scales_and_microtonal_music"></span><br /> <b> Prime limits, scales and microtonal music</b><br /> Prime limits lend themselves for the investigation of scales. This is because in a scale in which all notes form an interval from the base note that remains within a certain prime limit, all other intervals between these notes remain within the same limit. This can be shown using the following <span href="/wiki/Diatonic_scale" title="Diatonic scale">diatonic scale</span>:<br /> This scale is defined such that all pitches remain within a <b>5-limit</b> (relative to the base note). As can be seen, that same condition holds for the steps between neighboring pitches. All resulting intervals between any two pitches include all of the intervals necessary for <span href="/wiki/Triad_%28music%29" title="Triad (music)">major and minor triads</span>, which are the building-blocks of <span href="/wiki/Tonal_music" title="Tonal music">tonal music</span>. Thus, almost all music composed is in five-limit — it uses relationships based only on the fifth partial or below, and all intervals can be described as ratios of <span href="/wiki/Regular_number" title="Regular number">regular numbers</span>.<br /> In the harmonic series, every even-numbered partial is the octave duplication of another lower one. Every <span href="/wiki/Prime_number" title="Prime number">prime-numbered</span> partial introduces a new relationship; just as the five-limit primes (1, 2, 3 and 5) introduce new types of intervals (<span href="/wiki/Unison" title="Unison">unisons</span>, octaves, fifths, and thirds, respectively), higher primes (such as 7, 11, 13 and beyond) introduce intervals that are foreign to most music. <span href="/wiki/Septimal_meantone_temperament" title="Septimal meantone temperament">Septimal meantone temperaments</span> such as <span href="/wiki/31_equal_temperament" title="31 equal temperament">31 equal temperament</span> provide approximations to <b>7-limit</b> intervals. Some believe that <span href="/wiki/Blue_note" title="Blue note">blue notes</span> are derived from 7-limit intervals.<br /> In the twentieth century, <span href="/wiki/Harry_Partch" title="Harry Partch">Harry Partch</span> developed a system of just intonation <span href="/wiki/Microtonal_music" title="Microtonal music">microtonal music</span> that included intervals up to the <b>11-limit</b>. <span href="/wiki/Ben_Johnston_%28composer%29" title="Ben Johnston (composer)">Ben Johnston</span> extended Partch's system, composing music based on a flexible tuning system that derives pitches from as high as the <b>31-limit</b>. Others, including <span href="/wiki/La_Monte_Young" title="La Monte Young">La Monte Young</span>, have based music on higher primes than 31.<br /> <span name="Tonality_diamond_and_lattice" id="Tonality_diamond_and_lattice"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-18920878406099395022008-04-30T11:52:00.001-04:002008-04-30T11:52:48.666-04:00<img src="http://www.packyourskis.com/images/branding/pys/small_resort_images/GresTrin01.jpg" alt="Gressoney-La-Trinité" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>Luserna</b> (<span href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</span>: <i>Lusèrn</i>) is a <i><span href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">comune</span></i> (municipality) in the <span href="/wiki/Province_of_Trento" title="Province of Trento">Autonomous Province of Trento</span> in the <span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</span> region <span href="/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol" title="Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol">Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol</span>, located about 25 km southeast of <span href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</span>. As of <span href="/wiki/December_31" title="December 31">31 December</span> <span href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</span>, it had a population of 284 and an area of 8.2 km².<br /> <span name="Demographic_evolution" id="Demographic_evolution"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-37510058723062194392008-04-29T12:06:00.001-04:002008-04-29T12:06:09.423-04:00 <b></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">List of forms of government</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">Representative democracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Constitutional_republic" title="Constitutional republic">Constitutional republic</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary republic</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Socialist_republic" title="Socialist republic">Socialist republic</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist republic</span><br /> A <strong class="selflink">monarchy</strong>, from the <span href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</span> <i>μονος</i>, "one", and <i><span href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">αρχειν</span></i>, "to rule", is a <span href="/wiki/Form_of_government" title="Form of government">form of government</span> in which a monarch, usually a single person, is the <span href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</span>.<br /> In most monarchies, the monarch holds their position for life (in some republics the head of state, often styled <span href="/wiki/President" title="President">president</span>, also remains in office for life, but in most is <span href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">elected</span> for a term of office, after which he or she must step down). There are currently 31 monarchs reigning over 45 extant sovereign monarchies in the world; the disconnect in numbers between monarchs and countries is explained by the fact that the sixteen <span href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Realms" title="Commonwealth Realms">Commonwealth Realms</span> - vast geographic areas including the trans-continental realms of <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</span> and <span href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</span> - are separately reigned over in <span href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</span> by one person, and one other monarchy, <span href="/wiki/Andorra" title="Andorra">Andorra</span>, by two non-resident (French and Spanish) co-monarchs.<br /> The term monarchy is also used to refer to the <span href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</span> (especially the <span href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</span>, also known as <span href="/wiki/Royalty" title="Royalty">royalty</span>) and institutions that make up the royal or imperial establishment, or to the <span href="/wiki/Realm" title="Realm">realm</span> over which the monarch reigns.<br /> Monarchs serve as <span href="/wiki/Symbols" title="Symbols">symbols</span> of <span href="/wiki/Continuity" title="Continuity">continuity</span> and <span href="/wiki/Statehood" title="Statehood">statehood</span>. Today, the extent of a monarch's actual powers varies from monarchy to monarchy. In constitutional monarchies, wherein <span href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</span> rests formally with the crown but politically with 'the people' (usually the electorate, as represented by a parliament), the monarch now usually serves largely ceremonial functions, except in times of crisis. Many monarchies are constituted by tradition or by <span href="/wiki/Codified_law" title="Codified law">codified law</span>, so that the monarch has little real <span href="/wiki/Political_power" title="Political power">political power</span>; in others the monarch holds some power but is limited from exercising it by popular or precedential opinion; in still others the monarch holds substantial power and may exercise it without limit.<br /> Monarchy is one of the oldest forms of government, with echoes in the leadership of <span href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribal chiefs</span>. Many monarchs once claimed to rule by <span href="/wiki/Divine_Right_of_Kings" title="Divine Right of Kings">divine right</span>, or at least by divine grace, ruling either by the will of the god(s) or even claiming to be (incarnated) gods themselves; cfr. <span href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocracy</span>. Monarchs have also been selected by <span href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">election</span> (either in a broad popular assembly, as in Germanic tribal states; or by a small body, such as in the <span href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</span>; or by <span href="/wiki/Sucession" title="Sucession">dynastic succession</span>; or by <span href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">conquest</span> as in Malaysia and the UAE; or a combination of any number of ways). In some early systems the monarch was overthrown or sacrificed when it became apparent that <span href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">divine sanction</span> had been withdrawn.<br /> Since <span href="/wiki/1800" title="1800">1800</span>, most of the world's monarchies have been abolished by dismemberment or annexation, or have been transformed into republics; most current countries that are monarchies are <span href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional ones</span>. Among the few states that retain a rather <span href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</span> are <span href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</span>, <span href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</span>, <span href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</span>, <span href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</span>, <span href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</span>, <span href="/wiki/Swaziland" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</span> (the papal city-state, an electoral <span href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocracy</span>). In <span href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</span> and <span href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</span>, the monarch also retains considerable power. There are also recent (<span href="/wiki/2003" title="2003">2003</span>) developments in <span href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</span>, wherein the regnant <span href="/wiki/Prince" title="Prince">prince</span> was given the constitutional power to dismiss the government at will. <span href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</span> had several swings between constitutional rule and <span href="/wiki/Direct_rule" title="Direct rule">direct rule</span> related to the <span href="/wiki/Maoist" title="Maoist">Maoist</span> rebel movement and killings by a suicidal <span href="/wiki/Crown_prince" title="Crown prince">crown prince</span>.<br /> <span name="Types_of_Monarchy" id="Types_of_Monarchy"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">Communist state</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">Despotism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Hierocracy" title="Hierocracy">Hierocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">Kleptocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Kritarchy" title="Kritarchy">Kritarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Krytocracy" title="Krytocracy">Krytocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</span><br /> <strong class="selflink">Monarchy</strong><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ochlocracy" title="Ochlocracy">Ochlocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Single-party_state" title="Single-party state">Single-party state</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Timocracy" title="Timocracy">Timocracy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyranny</span> <b> Types of Monarchy</b><br /> The rules for selection of monarchs varies from country to country. In constitutional monarchies the rule of succession is generally embodied in a law passed by a representative body, such as a <span href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">parliament</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">Elective monarchies</span>, distinguished by the monarchs being appointed for life, have in most cases been succeeded by hereditary monarchies, but both secular sovereign nation cases at present - those of <span href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</span> and the <span href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</span> - are 20th-century creations. In the hereditary system, the position of monarch involves inheritance according to an <span href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">order of succession</span>, usually within one <span href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">royal family</span> tracing its origin back to a historical <span href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</span> or bloodline. In some cases the ruling family may claim to hold authority by virtue of the associated god's choosing, as reflected in the style-phrase "<span href="/wiki/By_the_Grace_of_God" title="By the Grace of God">by the Grace of God</span>," or other religion-based authority.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">order of succession</span> in most European monarchical states of the <span href="/wiki/21st_century" title="21st century">21st century</span> is by <span href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</span>, meaning that either the eldest child of the monarch or the eldest son of the monarch is first in line. Currently, there is some controversy over the succession laws of some monarchies such as that of the <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</span> (UK), <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadian</span>, or the <span href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</span> monarchies, which require their monarch to be of a certain faith (in the Commonwealth Realms under the <span href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701" title="Act of Settlement 1701">Act of Settlement 1701</span>). This has been challenged as violating <span href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</span> rules that prohibit <span href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</span> disqualification for positions of state authority, as well as a violation of the Canadian <span href="/wiki/Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Charter of Rights and Freedoms">Charter of Rights and Freedoms</span>.<br /> Historically, successions in dependent states could be subject to the assent of the (colonial or other) dominant power, which then often reserved the right to dethrone (and replace) a 'disloyal' incumbent.<br /> <span name="Titles_as_Political_Statements" id="Titles_as_Political_Statements"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.popboks.com/img/albumi/jayz.jpg" alt="Kingdom" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Succession</b><br /> Official styles and titles of monarchs often reflect the ambitions and ideals of the governments they head or represent and actual historical ties or claims to territories no longer under their administration or even extinguished as political units.<br /> Some titles are specifically designed to express a relative rank, usually higher if self-assumed, as in the case of <span href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</span> and various equivalents, or Tipu Sultan who assumed the rank <span href="/wiki/Padshah_Bahadur" title="Padshah Bahadur">Padshah Bahadur</span> when declaring his new Muslim empire Khudadad independent from the <span href="/wiki/Mughal" title="Mughal">Mughal</span> Padshah, it has no other meaning then 'in rank above Padhsah'. Some monarchic titles suggest a unique exalted rank, even universal supremacy, such as the <span href="/wiki/Caliph" title="Caliph">Caliph</span>, and yet there may be parallel dynasties, e.g. a branch of the <span href="/wiki/Umayyad" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</span> in Cordoba while the Oriental caliphate had been take over by the <span href="/wiki/Abassids" title="Abassids">Abassids</span> (in Baghdad). Other titles are perceived as carrying a protocolary rank, so granting (often as a reward for a loyal vassal) or assuming (as an assertion) a higher title can mean a 'promotion' regardless of political reality.<br /> Additional elements in the full style may refer to the legitimation of the throne, either directly as by a phrase like "<span href="/wiki/By_the_Grace_of_God" title="By the Grace of God">by the Grace of God</span>," or indirectly by referring to a legitimating function, such as protecting the official religion, e.g. for a Muslim ruler by the style <span href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_faithful" title="Commander of the faithful">Commander of the faithful</span>. The Protestant Successors to <span href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</span> of England have all retained the "<span href="/wiki/Defender_of_the_Faith" title="Defender of the Faith">Defender of the Faith</span>" originally granted by the <span href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope</span> to <span href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_Tudor" title="Henry VIII Tudor">Henry VIII Tudor</span> before the 'annulment crises' lead to the <span href="/wiki/Anglican_Schism" title="Anglican Schism">Anglican Schism</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II" title="Queen Elizabeth II">Queen Elizabeth II</span> is "by the Grace of God, Queen" in fifteen of her sixteen realms, only <span href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</span> omitting this phrase from her title there. During Spain's transition to a constitutional monarchy under <span href="/wiki/Isabella_II" title="Isabella II">Isabella II</span>, her Style was changed from the 'Long Form' which included "by the Grace of God" and some 20 states to "By divine grace and the constitution, queen of the Spains".<br /> The kings and queens of England and Great Britain retained the title King of France until the union with Ireland to form the United Kingdom in 1801, during the reign of <span href="/wiki/King_George_III" title="King George III">King George III</span>. The kings and queens of Spain retained a long list of kingdoms, that didn't include Spain until Isabella II in 1837. The Council of Ministers (1987) authorized <span href="/wiki/Juan_Carlos_I" title="Juan Carlos I">Juan Carlos I</span>, King of Spain, to also use "historical titles," presumably including the crusader relict King of Jerusalem.<br /> <span name="Demise_of_monarchies" id="Demise_of_monarchies"></span><br /> <b> Titles as Political Statements</b><br /> Monarchies can come to an end in several ways. There may be a <span href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</span> in which the monarchy is overthrown; or, as in <span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</span>, the electorate decides to form a republic by constitutional <span href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendum</span>. In some cases, as with <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span> and <span href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</span>, the monarchy has been overthrown and later restored. After the abdication of Napoleon I, which ended the <span href="/wiki/First_Empire" title="First Empire">First Empire</span>, the French restored the royal Bourbon dynasty which had been abolished by the republic within which Napoleon had established the Empire. At the same time, his emperorship was "revived" outside <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span>, as a "golden cage" principality was created for him on the island of <span href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</span>, so in a sense the empire was succeeded by a kingdom and an emperor without an empire.<br /> Dependent monarchies have been abolished by their dominant power, often for the purposes of being fully annexed, split or merged with another. In <span href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</span>, for example, local tribal monarchies were abolished when the country became a <span href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">unitary state</span>.<br /> The most recent monarchy to be abolished was the former <span href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Realm" title="Commonwealth Realm">Commonwealth Realm</span> monarchy of <span href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</span> in 1992. In 1999 Australians voted to keep their status as a monarchy under Queen Elizabeth II.<br /> Countries may regard themselves as monarchies even without an actual monarch on the vacant throne, as <span href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</span> did from <span href="/wiki/1947" title="1947">1947</span> to <span href="/wiki/1975" title="1975">1975</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</span> from <span href="/wiki/1920" title="1920">1920</span> to <span href="/wiki/1946" title="1946">1946</span>.<br /> A person who can be taken into consideration as future monarch in case of restoration of monarchy (or who even claims to be the legitimate heir to the throne of a deposed or in the royalist view suspended monarchy) is called a <span href="/wiki/Pretender" title="Pretender">pretender</span>, but that term also applies to a rival claimant of a filled throne, such as the several Russians who claimed to be a <span href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</span> simultaneously.<br /> See also <span href="/wiki/Abolished_monarchy" title="Abolished monarchy">abolished monarchy</span> for a list of recently-abolished monarchies.<br /> <span name="Unusual_Monarchies" id="Unusual_Monarchies"></span><br /> <b> Demise of monarchies</b><br /> Sometimes, component members of federal states are monarchies, even though the federal state as a whole is not; for example each of the emirates that form the <span href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</span> has its own monarch (an <span href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emir</span>). Another unique situation is <span href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</span>, in which the federal king, called the <span href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong" title="Yang di-Pertuan Agong">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</span> or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five year term from and by the hereditary rulers (mostly <span href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultans</span>) of nine of the federation's constitutive <span href="/wiki/States_of_Malaysia" title="States of Malaysia">States</span>, all on the <span href="/wiki/Malay_peninsula" title="Malay peninsula">Malay peninsula</span>.<br /> In addition to his ecclesiastical role as Supreme Pontiff of all Christians worldwide in communion with the Bishop of Rome, the <span href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</span> is <i>ex officio</i> the absolute monarch of <span href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</span>, the last truly sovereign <span href="/wiki/Prince_of_the_Church" title="Prince of the Church">Prince of the Church</span>. He is elected by (and customarily from among) the <span href="/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" title="College of Cardinals">College of Cardinals</span>. (Since the Catholic episcopate is celibate, naturally there can be no official hereditary succession to the papal throne.) Notwithstanding this, the papacy has at times been under the control of powerful Italian families. Several popes have been succeeded by near relatives (officially described as <i>Nepotes</i>, literally 'nephews').<br /> <span href="/wiki/Andorra" title="Andorra">Andorra</span> is the world's only co-principality: it had two co-princes: the Bishop of <span href="/wiki/Urgell" title="Urgell">Urgell</span> in Spain (thus a <span href="/wiki/Prince-Bishop" title="Prince-Bishop">Prince-Bishop</span>), and the <span href="/wiki/President_of_France" title="President of France">President of France</span>—a unique case where an independent country's Monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country, which is not even in full <span href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</span>.<br /> Since 1947, the <span href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Emperors of Japan</span> have reigned as neither <span href="/wiki/Sovereign" title="Sovereign">sovereign</span>, nor the <span href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</span> <span href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</span>. <span href="/wiki/Emperor_Hirohito" title="Emperor Hirohito">Emperor Hirohito</span> having ceded sovereignty to the people shortly after World War II, the Japanese monarchy is bound by <span href="/wiki/Supreme_law" title="Supreme law">supreme law</span> as opposed to <span href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention" title="Constitutional convention">constitutional convention</span> under the provisos of the <span href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan" title="Constitution of Japan">Constitution of Japan</span>.<br /> <span name="Monarchy_and_Oligarchy" id="Monarchy_and_Oligarchy"></span><br /> <b> Unusual Monarchies</b><br /> Early societies may become oligarchies as an outgrowth of an alliance between rival tribal chieftains or as the result of a caste system. Oligarchies can often become instruments of transformation, by insisting that monarchs or dictators share power, thereby opening the door to power-sharing by other elements of society (while oligarchy means "the rule of the few," monarchy means "the rule of the one"). One example of power-sharing from one person to a larger group of persons occurred when English nobles banded together in 1215 to force a reluctant King John of England to sign the Magna Carta, a tacit recognition both of King John's waning political power and of the existence of an incipient oligarchy (the nobility). As English society continued to grow and develop, the Magna Carta was repeatedly revised (1216, 1217, and 1225), guaranteeing greater rights to greater numbers of people, thus setting the stage for English constitutional monarchy.<br /> Oligarchies may also evolve into more autocratic or monarchist forms of government, sometimes as the result of one family gaining ascendancy over the others. Many of the European monarchies established during the late Middle Ages began in this way.<br /> <span name="Arguments_for_and_against_monarchies" id="Arguments_for_and_against_monarchies"></span><br /> <b> Monarchy and Oligarchy</b><br /> <span name="Arguments_for_monarchies" id="Arguments_for_monarchies"></span><br /> <b> Arguments for and against monarchies</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchists</span> rely amongst others to the following arguments:<br /> <span name="Arguments_against_monarchies" id="Arguments_against_monarchies"></span><br /> A (future) monarch is considered as more competent for the office than an elected president because of his possibility to be prepared from childhood on.<br /> A monarchy can be lower-cost than a republic because of missing presidential elections and the fact the familial fortune may suffice to supply the imperial/royal family so that additional official benefits can be economized (in contrast to the republican system in which imcumbent <i>and</i> former presidents have to been paid domicile, pension, bureau and official car by the exchequer).<br /> Presidential elections expose future Head of states to the habitual competition during periods of election campaigns. Monarchists consider this as very damaging for the reputation of a Head of state.<br /> The fact that a future president normally belongs to a political party is contradictory to a Head of state's function as neutral representative of the country and the people. Only a non-party monarch is seen as able to fulfill this role.<br /> Presidents always have to act accordingly to their party's program and ideas while a monarch can reign independently of certain political directions.<br /> A monarch is seen as a better (visible) symbol of national identity and unity.<br /> The republic is blamed to produce political incertitude because of the permanent change of Head of States while monarchy serves as a symbol of continuity. Some monarchists argue that monarchy doesn't only serve as a symbol but even really guarantees political stability: They justify this point of view with the fact that abolition of monarchy often led to civil wars and the rise of totalitarian systems; for example, <span href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">National Socialism</span> in Germany, <span href="/wiki/Jacobin_Club" title="Jacobin Club">Jacobinism</span> in <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span>, <span href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</span> in <span href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</span> in <span href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</span>. <img src="http://g-ec2.images-amazon.com/images/G/02/uk-dvd/flash-player/kingdom-slate._SX320_CR0,0,0,0_PIen-gb-vendor-play-shuttle-off,BottomLeft,0,43_.jpg" alt="Kingdom" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Arguments against monarchies</b><br /> Currently 45 nations in the world have monarchs as heads of state, 16 of which are <span href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Realms" title="Commonwealth Realms">Commonwealth Realms</span> that formally recognize <span href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II" title="Queen Elizabeth II">Queen Elizabeth II</span> as their head of state and <span href="/wiki/Prince_Charles" title="Prince Charles">Prince Charles</span> as heir.<br /> <span name="Current_subnational_traditional_monarchies" id="Current_subnational_traditional_monarchies"></span><br /> <b> Current monarchies of the world</b><br /> Not only are the Monarchs of constitutive monarchies part of the federal establishment of both present elective monarchies (Malaysia, mainly sultanates, and the UAE, so named after its emirates), in many other modern states -often republics- tribal and other traditional states persist, with a dynasty that retains a court and often local prestige and influence; some are officially installed with the consent of the official government (as some of the many in Indonesia- waiting for the go-ahead can mean years of vacancy on the throne), others are merely condoned, or even in exile.<br /> In many countries that are legally <span href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republics</span>, an heir to the throne is recognized by the royalist part of the <span href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</span>. A list of such countries is available in the <span href="/wiki/Pretender" title="Pretender">pretender</span> article.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="Sources.2C_References_and_External_links" id="Sources.2C_References_and_External_links"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_Australia" title="Monarchy in Australia">Australian Monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Belgian_monarchy" title="Belgian monarchy">Belgian monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/British_Monarchy" title="British Monarchy">British Monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarchies_of_Burma" title="Monarchies of Burma">Monarchies of Burma</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_Canada" title="Monarchy in Canada">Canadian Monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_Danish_monarchs" title="List of Danish monarchs">List of Danish monarchs</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarchies_of_Ethiopia" title="Monarchies of Ethiopia">Monarchies of Ethiopia</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Cokossian_Monarchy" title="Cokossian Monarchy">Cokossian Monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Dutch_monarchy" title="Dutch monarchy">Dutch monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Emperor of Japan</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Indonesian_Monarchies" title="Indonesian Monarchies">Indonesian Monarchies</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/King_of_Ireland" title="King of Ireland">King of Ireland</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Kotokolian_Monarchy" title="Kotokolian Monarchy">Kotokolian Monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_New_Zealand" title="Monarchy in New Zealand">New Zealand Monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_Nigerian_traditional_states" title="List of Nigerian traditional states">List of Nigerian traditional states</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Norwegian_monarchy" title="Norwegian monarchy">Norwegian monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Datu" title="Datu">Datus of the Philippines</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Monarch_of_Sweden" title="Monarch of Sweden">Monarch of Sweden</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Tenkodogo_Monarchy" title="Tenkodogo Monarchy">Tenkodogo Monarchy</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Wogodogo_Monarchy" title="Wogodogo Monarchy">Wogodogo Monarchy</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-72310839677345327432008-04-26T11:16:00.001-04:002008-04-26T11:16:03.138-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Mark John Geragos</b> (born <span href="/wiki/October_5" title="October 5">October 5</span>, <span href="/wiki/1957" title="1957">1957</span>) is an <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</span> <span href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal defense</span> <span href="/wiki/Attorney" title="Attorney">attorney</span> best known for defending pop-star <span href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</span>, actress <span href="/wiki/Winona_Ryder" title="Winona Ryder">Winona Ryder</span>, <span href="/wiki/Gary_Condit" title="Gary Condit">Gary Condit</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Susan_McDougal" title="Susan McDougal">Susan McDougal</span>, who was involved in the <span href="/wiki/Whitewater_scandal" title="Whitewater scandal">Whitewater scandal</span>. He also represented <span href="/wiki/Scott_Peterson" title="Scott Peterson">Scott Peterson</span>, in another trial that received widespread media attention.<br /> <span name="Background" id="Background"></span><br /> <b> Background</b><br /> <span name="Lindsay_Lohan" id="Lindsay_Lohan"></span><br /> <b> Notable clients</b><br /> <span name="Susan_McDougal" id="Susan_McDougal"></span><br /> <b> Lindsay Lohan</b><br /> Geragos first came to national attention with back-to-back <span href="/wiki/Acquittal" title="Acquittal">acquittals</span> in both State and Federal Court jury trials for Whitewater figure <span href="/wiki/Susan_McDougal" title="Susan McDougal">Susan McDougal</span>, the former business partner of former <span href="/wiki/President" title="President">President</span> <span href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</span>.<br /> <span name="Winona_Ryder" id="Winona_Ryder"></span><br /> <b> Susan McDougal</b><br /> In December 2002, Geragos defended <span href="/wiki/Academy_award" title="Academy award">Academy award</span>–nominated actress <span href="/wiki/Winona_Ryder" title="Winona Ryder">Winona Ryder</span> on charges of stealing more than <span href="/wiki/US_dollar" title="US dollar">$</span>5,500 worth of merchandise from a <span href="/wiki/Beverly_Hills%2C_California" title="Beverly Hills, California">Beverly Hills, California</span> store in 2001. She was sentenced to three years probation and ordered to undergo psychological and drug counseling.<br /> <span name="Michael_Jackson_.26_Scott_Peterson" id="Michael_Jackson_.26_Scott_Peterson"></span><br /> <b> Winona Ryder</b><br /> In the early stages of the <span href="/wiki/People_v._Jackson" title="People v. Jackson">Michael Jackson molestation case</span>, Geragos handled that case as well as <span href="/wiki/Scott_Peterson" title="Scott Peterson">Scott Peterson</span>'s death penalty case simultaneously. Though he managed a busy workload since he began working as a lawyer, during this time, he was handling two of the United States's best-known cases. Geragos's "...crushingly busy calendar" in the courtroom earned him a rebuke by a judge in an embezzlement case Geragos was also trying. Less than a year later Scott Peterson, Geragos's <i>other</i> high profile case, was convicted and sentenced to death.<br /> <span name="Greg_Anderson" id="Greg_Anderson"></span><br /> <b> Michael Jackson & Scott Peterson</b><br /> In 2006, Geragos was back in the headlines for representing <span href="/wiki/Barry_Bonds" title="Barry Bonds">Barry Bonds</span>'s personal trainer <span href="/wiki/Greg_Anderson_%28trainer%29" title="Greg Anderson (trainer)">Greg Anderson</span>. On <span href="/wiki/July_5" title="July 5">July 5</span>, <span href="/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</span>, Anderson was found in contempt of court by <span href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California" title="United States District Court for the Northern District of California">U.S. District</span> Judge William Alsup who jailed Anderson for refusing to testify before a federal grand jury investigating perjury accusations against Bonds. Geragos announced he would file an appeal based on his assertion that the subpoena to testify violated Anderson's July 2005 plea bargain agreement in the <span href="/wiki/BALCO" title="BALCO">Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative</span> case. <span href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/07/06/MNGGRJQES51.DTL&feed=rss.news" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/07/06/MNGGRJQES51.DTL&feed=rss.news" rel="nofollow">[2]</span> Anderson was to be held until he agreed to testify or the grand jury's term expired. Geragos has said his client would not testify. <span href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060720/ap_on_sp_ba_ne/bbo_giants_bonds_steroids" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060720/ap_on_sp_ba_ne/bbo_giants_bonds_steroids" rel="nofollow">[3]</span> The grand jury expired on <span href="/wiki/July_20" title="July 20">July 20</span>, <span href="/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</span>, and Anderson was released from prison two weeks later. <span href="http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2524831&campaign=rss&source=ESPNHeadlines" class="external autonumber" title="http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2524831&campaign=rss&source=ESPNHeadlines" rel="nofollow">[4]</span> On <span href="/wiki/August_28" title="August 28">August 28</span>, <span href="/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</span>, Anderson was again found in contempt of court for refusing to testify before a newly convened grand jury and sentenced to prison. <span href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/08/29/BAG97KQQTC1.DTL&feed=rss.bayarea" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/08/29/BAG97KQQTC1.DTL&feed=rss.bayarea" rel="nofollow">[5]</span>Anderson was freed on October 5, 2006 after an order from the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that the Trial Judge had committed legal errors and ordered Anderson's immediate release. Anderson was sent back to jail on <span href="/wiki/November_16" title="November 16">November 16</span>, 2006.<br /> <span name="Others" id="Others"></span><br /> <img src="http://i.cnn.net/cnn/2003/LAW/09/19/ctv.geragos.client/story.geragos.jpg" alt="Mark Geragos" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Legal commentary</b><br /> <span name="Sources" id="Sources"></span><br /> 1999 - Trial Lawyer of The Year by the <span href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</span> Criminal Courts <span href="/wiki/Bar_Association" title="Bar Association">Bar Association</span>. qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-66643988803183431042008-04-25T13:15:00.001-04:002008-04-25T13:15:27.152-04:00<img src="http://www.washingtonwine.org/_assets/managed/members/569/images/570_map_Fall_Line_HHH_2004.jpg" alt="Maryhill Line" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> The <b>Maryhill Line</b> is a suburban <span href="/wiki/Railway_line" title="Railway line">railway line</span> linking <span href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</span> and <span href="/wiki/Anniesland" title="Anniesland">Anniesland</span> via <span href="/wiki/Maryhill" title="Maryhill">Maryhill</span> in <span href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</span>. It is part of the <span href="/wiki/Strathclyde_Partnership_for_Transport" title="Strathclyde Partnership for Transport">Strathclyde Partnership for Transport</span> network. The line between Glasgow and Maryhill forms a part of the <span href="/wiki/West_Highland_Line" title="West Highland Line">West Highland Line</span> and was re-opened to stopping passenger services in 1993. In 2005 it was extended to <span href="/wiki/Anniesland" title="Anniesland">Anniesland</span> via a new station at <span href="/wiki/Kelvindale" title="Kelvindale">Kelvindale</span> in the north west of the city.<br /> The route serves the following places:<br /> Maryhill Line services connect with the <span href="/wiki/Argyle_Line" title="Argyle Line">Argyle</span> and <span href="/wiki/North_Clyde_Line" title="North Clyde Line">North Clyde Lines</span> at Anniesland station.<br /> The line is not <span href="/wiki/Railway_electrification_in_Great_Britain" title="Railway electrification in Great Britain">electrified</span>. Passenger services are operated by <span href="/wiki/First_ScotRail" title="First ScotRail">First ScotRail</span>.<br /> <img src="http://www.hiddenglasgow.com/forums/download.php%3Favatar%3D256.jpg" alt="Maryhill Line" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <span href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</span> <span href="/wiki/Glasgow_Queen_Street_railway_station" title="Glasgow Queen Street railway station">Queen Street</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ashfield%2C_Glasgow" title="Ashfield, Glasgow">Ashfield</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Possilpark" title="Possilpark">Possilpark</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Parkhouse&action=edit" class="new" title="Parkhouse">Parkhouse</span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Gilshochill&action=edit" class="new" title="Gilshochill">Gilshochill</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Summerston" title="Summerston">Summerston</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Maryhill" title="Maryhill">Maryhill</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Kelvindale" title="Kelvindale">Kelvindale</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Anniesland" title="Anniesland">Anniesland</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-87219093233528850652008-04-24T12:49:00.000-04:002008-04-24T14:32:44.935-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Glasgow patter</b> or <b>Glaswegian</b> is a <span href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</span> spoken in and around <span href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</span>, <span href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</span>. Glasgow patter has evolved over the centuries amongst the <span href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working classes</span>, <span href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Irish</span> <span href="/wiki/Immigrant" title="Immigrant">immigrants</span> and passing seamen in the <span href="/wiki/Dockyard" title="Dockyard">dockyards</span>. The <span href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</span> is <span href="/wiki/Anglicised" title="Anglicised">anglicised</span> west central lowland <span href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</span> or <span href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</span> depending on viewpoint, and features a varied mix of typical Scots expressions and vocabulary, as well as some examples of <span href="/wiki/Rhyming_slang" title="Rhyming slang">rhyming slang</span>, local cultural references and street <span href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</span>.<br /> <b>The Patter</b> is used widely in everyday speech in Glasgow, even occasionally in broadcasting and print. It often reflects the Glasgow sense of humour. 'The Patter', as with all dialects, is constantly evolving and updating itself, forever generating new <span href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">euphemisms</span>, as well as <span href="/wiki/Nickname" title="Nickname">nicknames</span> for well-known local figures and buildings.<br /> <span name="Reference_books" id="Reference_books"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.scottishbooks.org/images/books/1184927538patter-web.jpg" alt="Glasgow patter" align="left" style="padding:10px" /><img src="http://somepatter.com/images/new-top-l4d.jpg" alt="Glasgow patter" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Reference books</b><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Munro&action=edit" class="new" title="Michael Munro">Michael Munro</span> wrote a light-hearted yet accurate and informative guide to Glasgow Patter entitled <i>The Patter</i>, first published in 1985. With humorous illustrations by <span href="/wiki/David_Neilson" title="David Neilson">David Neilson</span>, and later by <span href="/wiki/Paisley" title="Paisley">Paisley</span>-born artist and playwright <span href="/wiki/John_Byrne_%28Scottish_artist%29" title="John Byrne (Scottish artist)">John Byrne</span>, the book became very popular in Glasgow and the rest of Scotland, and was followed up by <i>The Patter - Another Blast</i> in 1988, with <i>The Complete Patter</i>, an updated compendium of the first and second books, being published in 1996.<br /> In the 1970s, Glasgow-born comedian <span href="/wiki/Stanley_Baxter" title="Stanley Baxter">Stanley Baxter</span> famously parodied the patter on his television sketch show. "Parliamo Glasgow" was a spoof language teaching programme where Baxter played a language coach, with various scenarios using Glaswegian dialogue were played out for humorous effect.<br /> In 1997, Jamie Stuart, a <span href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</span> elder from the High Carntyne Church, produced "A Glasgow Bible", relating some of the biblical tales in the Glaswegian vernacular.<br /> Popular Scottish television comedies like <span href="/wiki/Rab_C._Nesbitt" title="Rab C. Nesbitt">Rab C. Nesbitt</span>, <span href="/wiki/Chewin%27_the_Fat" title="Chewin' the Fat">Chewin' the Fat</span> and <span href="/wiki/Still_Game" title="Still Game">Still Game</span> also provide reference material, as well as having contributed popular new expressions to 'The Patter' themselves.<br /> <span name="Examples" id="Examples"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-40000242182709031462008-04-23T11:28:00.000-04:002008-04-23T11:29:01.378-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki</b> (<span href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</span>: <i>Laurentius Grimaldius Gosliscius</i>; born between <span href="/wiki/1530" title="1530">1530</span> and <span href="/wiki/1540" title="1540">1540</span>, died on <span href="/wiki/October_31" title="October 31">October 31</span>, <span href="/wiki/1607" title="1607">1607</span>) was a <span href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</span> <span href="/wiki/Szlachcic" title="Szlachcic">nobleman</span>, <span href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Pozna%C5%84" title="Bishop of Poznań">Bishop of Poznań</span> (1601-1607), political thinker and <span href="/wiki/Philosopher" title="Philosopher">philosopher</span> best known for his book <i><span href="/wiki/De_optimo_senatore" title="De optimo senatore">De optimo senatore</span></i> (1568; English translation: <i>The Counsellor</i>, <span href="/wiki/1598" title="1598">1598</span>).<br /> Born near <span href="/wiki/P%C5%82ock" title="Płock">Płock</span>, after studying at <span href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</span>'s <span href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_University" title="Jagiellonian University">Jagiellonian University</span> and at <span href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</span> and <span href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</span><br /> He was an influence in the framing of Europe's first modern codified national constitution, and the world's second after the USA, the <span href="/wiki/Polish_Constitution_of_May_3%2C_1791" title="Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791">Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791</span>.<br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> <img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg/280px-MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg" alt="Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> See also</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">sarmatism</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Andrzej_Frycz_Modrzewski" title="Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski">Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Andrzej_Maksymilian_Fredro" title="Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro">Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-1804306801957964432008-04-22T11:07:00.001-04:002008-04-22T11:07:24.731-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Vola Vale</b> (<span href="/wiki/February_12" title="February 12">February 12</span>, <span href="/wiki/1897" title="1897">1897</span> <i>-</i> <span href="/wiki/October_17" title="October 17">October 17</span>, <span href="/wiki/1970" title="1970">1970</span>) was a silent motion picture actress from <span href="/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</span>. She was born <b>Vola Smith</b>.<br /> <span name="Early_Career" id="Early_Career"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.consolatio.com/images/2007/09/17/angel_putney_vale_by_phil_bradley_f.jpg" alt="Vola Vale" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Model</b><br /> Vola was married for a time to film director and producer Al Russell. They had a son.<br /> She was a member of <i>Our Club</i>, a group of seventeen of Hollywood's <i>baby</i> cinema stars. <span href="/wiki/Mary_Pickford" title="Mary Pickford">Mary Pickford</span> served as honorary president. Fellow members were <span href="/wiki/Mildred_Davis" title="Mildred Davis">Mildred Davis</span>, <span href="/wiki/Helen_Ferguson" title="Helen Ferguson">Helen Ferguson</span>, <span href="/wiki/Patsy_Ruth_Miller" title="Patsy Ruth Miller">Patsy Ruth Miller</span>, Clara Horton, Gertrude Olmsted, <span href="/wiki/Laura_La_Plante" title="Laura La Plante">Laura La Plante</span>, <span href="/wiki/Virginia_Fox" title="Virginia Fox">Virginia Fox</span>, <span href="/wiki/Colleen_Moore" title="Colleen Moore">Colleen Moore</span>, <span href="/wiki/ZaSu_Pitts" title="ZaSu Pitts">ZaSu Pitts</span>, <span href="/wiki/Lois_Wilson" title="Lois Wilson">Lois Wilson</span>, <span href="/wiki/May_McAvoy" title="May McAvoy">May McAvoy</span>, <span href="/wiki/Gloria_Hope" title="Gloria Hope">Gloria Hope</span>, <span href="/wiki/Virginia_Valli" title="Virginia Valli">Virginia Valli</span>, <span href="/wiki/Carmel_Myers" title="Carmel Myers">Carmel Myers</span>, Edna Murphy, and <span href="/wiki/Carmelita_Geraghty" title="Carmelita Geraghty">Carmelita Geraghty</span><br /> Vola Vale died in <span href="/wiki/Hawthorne%2C_California" title="Hawthorne, California">Hawthorne, California</span> in <span href="/wiki/1970" title="1970">1970</span>, aged 73, of <span href="/wiki/Heart_disease" title="Heart disease">heart disease</span>. She is interred at the Roosevelt Memorial Park in <span href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_County%2C_California" title="Los Angeles County, California">Los Angeles County, California</span>, USA.<br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-74525531163626582272008-04-21T12:05:00.001-04:002008-04-21T12:05:50.746-04:00 <b></b><br /> The <b>Los Angeles Kings</b> are a professional ice hockey team based in <span href="/wiki/Los_Angeles%2C_California" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</span>. They are members of the <span href="/wiki/Pacific_Division_%28NHL%29" title="Pacific Division (NHL)">Pacific Division</span> of the <span href="/wiki/Western_Conference_%28NHL%29" title="Western Conference (NHL)">Western Conference</span> of the <span href="/wiki/National_Hockey_League" title="National Hockey League">National Hockey League</span> (NHL). Founded on <span href="/wiki/February_9" title="February 9">February 9</span>, <span href="/wiki/1966" title="1966">1966</span>, when Jack Kent Cooke was awarded an expansion franchise in Los Angeles,<br /> The Kings' closest rival is the <span href="/wiki/Anaheim_Ducks" title="Anaheim Ducks">Anaheim Ducks</span>, who play approximately thirty-five miles (56.3 km) to the south in <span href="/wiki/Anaheim%2C_California" title="Anaheim, California">Anaheim</span>.<br /> <span name="Franchise_history" id="Franchise_history"></span><br /> <b> Franchise history</b><br /> Prior to the Kings arrival in the Los Angeles area, both the <span href="/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Hockey_League" title="Pacific Coast Hockey League">Pacific Coast Hockey League</span> (PCHL) and the <span href="/wiki/Western_Hockey_League_%28minor_pro%29" title="Western Hockey League (minor pro)">Western Hockey League</span> (WHL) had several teams in California, including the PCHL's Los Angeles Monarchs of the 1930s and the WHL's <span href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Blades" title="Los Angeles Blades">Los Angeles Blades</span> of the 1960s.<br /> <span name="Black_and_silver_era_.281988.E2.80.9389_to_1997.E2.80.9398.29" id="Black_and_silver_era_.281988.E2.80.9389_to_1997.E2.80.9398.29"></span><br /> <b> The "Forum Blue and Gold" years (1967–68 to 1987–88)</b><br /> In <span href="/wiki/1987" title="1987">1987</span>, coin collector <span href="/wiki/Bruce_McNall" title="Bruce McNall">Bruce McNall</span> purchased the Kings from Buss, and he turned the team into a Stanley Cup contender almost overnight on <span href="/wiki/August_9" title="August 9">August 9</span>, <span href="/wiki/1988" title="1988">1988</span>, when he acquired the league's best player, Gretzky himself, in a blockbuster trade with the Oilers that rocked the hockey world, especially north of the border, where Canadians mourned the loss of a player they considered a national treasure. They were forced to trade many of their stronger players, resulting in a roster comprised of Gretzky, Blake and little else. The Kings missed the playoffs for four seasons, from <span href="/wiki/1993-94_NHL_season" title="1993-94 NHL season">1993–94</span> to <span href="/wiki/1996-97_NHL_season" title="1996-97 NHL season">1996–97</span>.<br /> <span name="Staples_Center_era_.281998.E2.80.93present.29" id="Staples_Center_era_.281998.E2.80.93present.29"></span><br /> <b> Black and silver era (1988–89 to 1997–98)</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Phillip_Anschutz" title="Phillip Anschutz">Phillip Anschutz</span> and Edward Roski bought the Kings out of bankruptcy court in October 1995 and began a rebuilding phase. Meanwhile, Gretzky, who was by this time on the downside of his career, stated publicly that he wanted the team to acquire a forward capable of scoring fifty goals per season and an offensive defenseman. If they failed to do that, he wanted to be traded to a team that was a legitimate Stanley Cup contender.<br /> After all he had done for the game by that time, Gretzky wanted another chance to win an elusive fifth Stanley Cup before retirement. But his public statements forced the Kings' hand, since no team would now give them equal value in a trade because of his demands — the Kings would be at a huge disadvantage in any trade, and this would badly hurt their rebuilding program.<br /> On February 27, <span href="/wiki/1995-96_NHL_season" title="1995-96 NHL season">1996</span>, Gretzky was traded, this time to the <span href="/wiki/St._Louis_Blues_%28hockey%29" title="St. Louis Blues (hockey)">St. Louis Blues</span>, for forwards <span href="/wiki/Craig_Johnson_%28ice_hockey%29" title="Craig Johnson (ice hockey)">Craig Johnson</span>, <span href="/wiki/Patrice_Tardif" title="Patrice Tardif">Patrice Tardif</span>, <span href="/wiki/Roman_Vopat" title="Roman Vopat">Roman Vopat</span>, a first-round pick in the <span href="/wiki/1997_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1997 NHL Entry Draft">1997 draft</span> (<span href="/wiki/Matt_Zultek" title="Matt Zultek">Matt Zultek</span>) and a fifth-round choice in the <span href="/wiki/1996_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1996 NHL Entry Draft">1996 draft</span> (Peter Hogan).<br /> In the 2007–2008 off-season, the Kings signed six unrestricted free agents, including center <span href="/wiki/Michal_Handzus" title="Michal Handzus">Michal Handzus</span>, left wings <span href="/wiki/Ladislav_Nagy" title="Ladislav Nagy">Ladislav Nagy</span> and <span href="/wiki/Kyle_Calder" title="Kyle Calder">Kyle Calder</span>, and defensemen <span href="/wiki/Tom_Preissing" title="Tom Preissing">Tom Preissing</span>, <span href="/wiki/Brad_Stuart" title="Brad Stuart">Brad Stuart</span> and <span href="/wiki/Jon_Klemm" title="Jon Klemm">Jon Klemm</span>.<br /> Like all NHL teams for the 2007-08 season, the Kings changed jerseys to new <span href="/wiki/Rbk_Edge" title="Rbk Edge">Rbk Edge</span> jerseys. The Kings kept their logo, and only made two minor changes to the striping; the shoulder trim was curved to fit the new style and the bottom (purple) stripe was removed, with "Los Angeles" remaining along the bottom edge (silver was changed to purple lettering on the road jerseys, and silver lettering remained on the home jerseys).<br /> <span name="Season-by-season_record" id="Season-by-season_record"></span><br /> <b> Staples Center era (1998–present)</b><br /> <i>This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Kings. For the full season-by-season history, see <span href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings_seasons" title="Los Angeles Kings seasons">Los Angeles Kings seasons</span></i><br /> <i><b>Note:</b> GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime losses/Shootout losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes</i><br /> <small>As of the <span href="/wiki/2005-06_NHL_season" title="2005-06 NHL season">2005-06 NHL season</span>, all games will have a winner; the OTL column includes SOL (Shootout losses).</small><br /> <span name="Notable_players" id="Notable_players"></span><br /> <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">Los Angeles Kings Communications Department (2005). <i>2005–06 Los Angeles Kings Media Guide</i>. Los Angeles Kings, 129, 210-211.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2005%E2%80%9306+Los+Angeles+Kings+Media+Guide&rft.au=Los+Angeles+Kings+Communications+Department&rft.pub=Los+Angeles+Kings&rft.pages=129%2C+210-211"> </span> <b> Season-by-season record</b><br /> <span name="Current_roster" id="Current_roster"></span><br /> <b> Notable players</b><br /> <small>As of February 7, <span href="/wiki/2007-08_NHL_season" title="2007-08 NHL season">2008</span>.</small><br /> <span name="Team_captains" id="Team_captains"></span><br /> <b> Current roster</b><br /> <br clear="all" /><br /> <span name="Hall_of_famers" id="Hall_of_famers"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Bob_Wall_%28hockey_player%29" title="Bob Wall (hockey player)">Bob Wall</span>, 1967-69<br /> <span href="/wiki/Larry_Cahan" title="Larry Cahan">Larry Cahan</span>, 1969-71<br /> <span href="/wiki/Bob_Pulford" title="Bob Pulford">Bob Pulford</span>, 1971-73<br /> <span href="/wiki/Terry_Harper" title="Terry Harper">Terry Harper</span>, 1973-75<br /> <span href="/wiki/Mike_Murphy_%28hockey_player%29" title="Mike Murphy (hockey player)">Mike Murphy</span>, 1975-81<br /> <span href="/wiki/Dave_Lewis_%28hockey%29" title="Dave Lewis (hockey)">Dave Lewis</span>, 1981-83<br /> <span href="/wiki/Terry_Ruskowski" title="Terry Ruskowski">Terry Ruskowski</span>, 1983-85<br /> <span href="/wiki/Dave_Taylor_%28hockey%29" title="Dave Taylor (hockey)">Dave Taylor</span>, 1985-89<br /> <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>, 1989-96<br /> <span href="/wiki/Luc_Robitaille" title="Luc Robitaille">Luc Robitaille</span>, 1992-93<br /> <span href="/wiki/Rob_Blake" title="Rob Blake">Rob Blake</span>, 1996-2001<br /> <span href="/wiki/Mattias_Norstrom" title="Mattias Norstrom">Mattias Norstrom</span>, 2001-07<br /> <span href="/wiki/Rob_Blake" title="Rob Blake">Rob Blake</span>, 2007- <i>present</i> <b> Hall of famers</b><br /> <span name="All_time_Kings_team" id="All_time_Kings_team"></span><br /> <b>16</b> <span href="/wiki/Marcel_Dionne" title="Marcel Dionne">Marcel Dionne</span>, C, 1975-87, number retired <span href="/wiki/November_8" title="November 8">November 8</span>, <span href="/wiki/1990" title="1990">1990</span><br /> <b>18</b> <span href="/wiki/Dave_Taylor_%28hockey%29" title="Dave Taylor (hockey)">Dave Taylor</span>, LW/RW, 1977-94, number retired <span href="/wiki/April_3" title="April 3">April 3</span>, <span href="/wiki/1995" title="1995">1995</span><br /> <b>20</b> <span href="/wiki/Luc_Robitaille" title="Luc Robitaille">Luc Robitaille</span>, LW, 1986-94, 1997-2001, & 2003-06, number retired <span href="/wiki/January_20" title="January 20">January 20</span>, <span href="/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</span><br /> <b>30</b> <span href="/wiki/Rogatien_Vachon" title="Rogatien Vachon">Rogatien "Rogie" Vachon</span>, G, 1972-78, number retired <span href="/wiki/February_14" title="February 14">February 14</span>, <span href="/wiki/1985" title="1985">1985</span><br /> <b>99</b> <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>, C, 1988-96, number retired by the league on <span href="/wiki/February_6" title="February 6">February 6</span>, <span href="/wiki/2000" title="2000">2000</span> and by the team on <span href="/wiki/October_9" title="October 9">October 9</span>, <span href="/wiki/2002" title="2002">2002</span> <b> Retired numbers</b><br /> As voted by the media and fans, an all time Kings team was selected to celebrate the club's 40th anniversary in the NHL The first and second teams were as follows:<br /> Goalies: 1st team - <span href="/wiki/Rogatien_Vachon" title="Rogatien Vachon">Rogatien "Rogie" Vachon</span>, 2nd team - <span href="/wiki/Kelly_Hrudey" title="Kelly Hrudey">Kelly Hrudey</span><img src="http://bp0.blogger.com/_fw7iF68JR8k/RuA7sdtRxNI/AAAAAAAAFyY/ts61B-M7iQI/s400/lak.png" alt="Los Angeles Kings" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> Defensemen: 1st team - <span href="/wiki/Rob_Blake" title="Rob Blake">Rob Blake</span> and <span href="/wiki/Steve_Duchesne" title="Steve Duchesne">Steve Duchesne</span>, 2nd team - <span href="/wiki/Larry_Murphy" title="Larry Murphy">Larry Murphy</span> and <span href="/wiki/Bob_Murdoch" title="Bob Murdoch">Bob Murdoch</span> Centers: 1st team - <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>, 2nd team - <span href="/wiki/Marcel_Dionne" title="Marcel Dionne">Marcel Dionne</span> Forwards: 1st team - <span href="/wiki/Dave_Taylor_%28hockey%29" title="Dave Taylor (hockey)">Dave Taylor</span> and <span href="/wiki/Luc_Robitaille" title="Luc Robitaille">Luc Robitaille</span>, 2nd team, <span href="/wiki/Charlie_Simmer" title="Charlie Simmer">Charlie Simmer</span> and <span href="/wiki/Mike_Murphy_%28hockey_player%29" title="Mike Murphy (hockey player)">Mike Murphy</span> Coach: 1st team - <span href="/wiki/Bob_Pulford" title="Bob Pulford">Bob Pulford</span>, 2nd team - <span href="/wiki/Barry_Melrose" title="Barry Melrose">Barry Melrose</span><br /> <span name="First-round_draft_picks" id="First-round_draft_picks"></span><br /> <b> All time Kings team</b><br /> <br clear="all" /><br /> <span name="Franchise_scoring_leaders" id="Franchise_scoring_leaders"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/1967_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1967 NHL Amateur Draft">1967</span>: <span href="/wiki/Rick_Pagnutti" title="Rick Pagnutti">Rick Pagnutti</span> (1st overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1968_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1968 NHL Amateur Draft">1968</span>: <span href="/wiki/Jim_McInally_%28ice_hockey%29" title="Jim McInally (ice hockey)">Jim McInally</span> (7th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1969_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1969 NHL Amateur Draft">1969</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1970_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1970 NHL Amateur Draft">1970</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1971_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1971 NHL Amateur Draft">1971</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1972_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1972 NHL Amateur Draft">1972</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1973_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1973 NHL Amateur Draft">1973</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1974_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1974 NHL Amateur Draft">1974</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1975_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1975 NHL Amateur Draft">1975</span>: <span href="/wiki/Tim_Young_%28ice_hockey%29" title="Tim Young (ice hockey)">Tim Young</span> (16th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1976_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1976 NHL Amateur Draft">1976</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1977_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1977 NHL Amateur Draft">1977</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1978_NHL_Amateur_Draft" title="1978 NHL Amateur Draft">1978</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1979_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1979 NHL Entry Draft">1979</span>: <span href="/wiki/Jay_Wells" title="Jay Wells">Jay Wells</span> (16th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1980_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1980 NHL Entry Draft">1980</span>: <span href="/wiki/Larry_Murphy" title="Larry Murphy">Larry Murphy</span> (4th overall) & <span href="/wiki/Jim_Fox_%28ice_hockey%29" title="Jim Fox (ice hockey)">Jim Fox</span> (10th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1981_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1981 NHL Entry Draft">1981</span>: <span href="/wiki/Doug_Smith_%28ice_hockey%29" title="Doug Smith (ice hockey)">Doug Smith</span> (2nd overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1982_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1982 NHL Entry Draft">1982</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1983_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1983 NHL Entry Draft">1983</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1984_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1984 NHL Entry Draft">1984</span>: <span href="/wiki/Craig_Redmond" title="Craig Redmond">Craig Redmond</span> (6th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1985_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1985 NHL Entry Draft">1985</span>: <span href="/wiki/Craig_Duncanson" title="Craig Duncanson">Craig Duncanson</span> (9th overall) & <span href="/wiki/Dan_Gratton" title="Dan Gratton">Dan Gratton</span> (10th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1986_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1986 NHL Entry Draft">1986</span>: <span href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carson" title="Jimmy Carson">Jimmy Carson</span> (2nd overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1987_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1987 NHL Entry Draft">1987</span>: <span href="/wiki/Wayne_McBean" title="Wayne McBean">Wayne McBean</span> (4th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1988_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1988 NHL Entry Draft">1988</span>: <span href="/wiki/Martin_Gelinas" title="Martin Gelinas">Martin Gelinas</span> (7th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1989_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1989 NHL Entry Draft">1989</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1990_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1990 NHL Entry Draft">1990</span>: <span href="/wiki/Darryl_Sydor" title="Darryl Sydor">Darryl Sydor</span> (7th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1991_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1991 NHL Entry Draft">1991</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1992_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1992 NHL Entry Draft">1992</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1993_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1993 NHL Entry Draft">1993</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1994_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1994 NHL Entry Draft">1994</span>: <span href="/wiki/Jamie_Storr" title="Jamie Storr">Jamie Storr</span> (7th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1995_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1995 NHL Entry Draft">1995</span>: <span href="/wiki/Aki_Berg" title="Aki Berg">Aki Berg</span> (3rd overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1996_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1996 NHL Entry Draft">1996</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/1997_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1997 NHL Entry Draft">1997</span>: <span href="/wiki/Olli_Jokinen" title="Olli Jokinen">Olli Jokinen</span> (3rd overall) & <span href="/wiki/Matt_Zultek" title="Matt Zultek">Matt Zultek</span> (15th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1998_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1998 NHL Entry Draft">1998</span>: <span href="/wiki/Mathieu_Biron" title="Mathieu Biron">Mathieu Biron</span> (21st overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/1999_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="1999 NHL Entry Draft">1999</span>: None<br /> <span href="/wiki/2000_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2000 NHL Entry Draft">2000</span>: <span href="/wiki/Alexander_Frolov" title="Alexander Frolov">Alexander Frolov</span> (20th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/2001_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2001 NHL Entry Draft">2001</span>: <span href="/wiki/Jens_Karlsson" title="Jens Karlsson">Jens Karlsson</span> (18th overall) & <span href="/wiki/Dave_Steckel" title="Dave Steckel">Dave Steckel</span> (30th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/2002_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2002 NHL Entry Draft">2002</span>: <span href="/wiki/Denis_Grebeshkov" title="Denis Grebeshkov">Denis Grebeshkov</span> (20th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/2003_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2003 NHL Entry Draft">2003</span>: <span href="/wiki/Dustin_Brown" title="Dustin Brown">Dustin Brown</span> (13th overall), <span href="/wiki/Brian_Boyle_%28ice_hockey%29" title="Brian Boyle (ice hockey)">Brian Boyle</span> (26th overall), & <span href="/wiki/Jeff_Tambellini" title="Jeff Tambellini">Jeff Tambellini</span> (27th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/2004_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2004 NHL Entry Draft">2004</span>: <span href="/wiki/Lauri_Tukonen" title="Lauri Tukonen">Lauri Tukonen</span> (11th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/2005_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2005 NHL Entry Draft">2005</span>: <span href="/wiki/Anze_Kopitar" title="Anze Kopitar">Anze Kopitar</span> (11th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/2006_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2006 NHL Entry Draft">2006</span>: <span href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bernier" title="Jonathan Bernier">Jonathan Bernier</span> (11th overall) & <span href="/wiki/Trevor_Lewis" title="Trevor Lewis">Trevor Lewis</span> (17th overall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/2007_NHL_Entry_Draft" title="2007 NHL Entry Draft">2007</span>: <span href="/wiki/Thomas_Hickey_%28hockey_player%29" title="Thomas Hickey (hockey player)">Thomas Hickey</span> (4th overall) <b> First-round draft picks</b><br /> These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.<br /> <i><b>Note:</b> Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game; * = current Kings player</i><br /> <span name="NHL_awards_and_trophies" id="NHL_awards_and_trophies"></span><br /> <b> Franchise scoring leaders</b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Clarence_S._Campbell_Bowl" title="Clarence S. Campbell Bowl">Clarence S. Campbell Bowl</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Art_Ross_Trophy" title="Art Ross Trophy">Art Ross Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Bill_Masterton_Memorial_Trophy" title="Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy">Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Calder_Memorial_Trophy" title="Calder Memorial Trophy">Calder Memorial Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Hart_Memorial_Trophy" title="Hart Memorial Trophy">Hart Memorial Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/James_Norris_Memorial_Trophy" title="James Norris Memorial Trophy">James Norris Memorial Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/King_Clancy_Memorial_Trophy" title="King Clancy Memorial Trophy">King Clancy Memorial Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Lady_Byng_Memorial_Trophy" title="Lady Byng Memorial Trophy">Lady Byng Memorial Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson_Award" title="Lester B. Pearson Award">Lester B. Pearson Award</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Lester_Patrick_Trophy" title="Lester Patrick Trophy">Lester Patrick Trophy</span></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/NHL_Plus/Minus_Award" title="NHL Plus/Minus Award">NHL Plus/Minus Award</span></b><br /> <br clear="all" /><br /> <span name="Franchise_individual_records" id="Franchise_individual_records"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/1992-93_NHL_season" title="1992-93 NHL season">1992–93</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Marcel_Dionne" title="Marcel Dionne">Marcel Dionne</span>: <span href="/wiki/1979-80_NHL_season" title="1979-80 NHL season">1979–80</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>: <span href="/wiki/1989-90_NHL_season" title="1989-90 NHL season">1989–90</span>, <span href="/wiki/1990-91_NHL_season" title="1990-91 NHL season">1990–91</span>, <span href="/wiki/1993-94_NHL_season" title="1993-94 NHL season">1993–94</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Butch_Goring" title="Butch Goring">Butch Goring</span>: <span href="/wiki/1977-78_NHL_season" title="1977-78 NHL season">1977–78</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Bob_Bourne" title="Bob Bourne">Bob Bourne</span>: <span href="/wiki/1987-88_NHL_Season" title="1987-88 NHL Season">1987–88</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Dave_Taylor_%28hockey%29" title="Dave Taylor (hockey)">Dave Taylor</span>: <span href="/wiki/1990-91_NHL_season" title="1990-91 NHL season">1990–91</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Luc_Robitaille" title="Luc Robitaille">Luc Robitaille</span>: <span href="/wiki/1986-87_NHL_season" title="1986-87 NHL season">1986–87</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>: <span href="/wiki/1988-89_NHL_season" title="1988-89 NHL season">1988–89</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Rob_Blake" title="Rob Blake">Rob Blake</span>: <span href="/wiki/1997-98_NHL_season" title="1997-98 NHL season">1997–98</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Dave_Taylor_%28hockey%29" title="Dave Taylor (hockey)">Dave Taylor</span>: <span href="/wiki/1990-91_NHL_season" title="1990-91 NHL season">1990–91</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Marcel_Dionne" title="Marcel Dionne">Marcel Dionne</span>: <span href="/wiki/1976-77_NHL_season" title="1976-77 NHL season">1976–77</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Butch_Goring" title="Butch Goring">Butch Goring</span>: <span href="/wiki/1977-78_NHL_season" title="1977-78 NHL season">1977–78</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>: <span href="/wiki/1990-91_NHL_season" title="1990-91 NHL season">1990–91</span>, <span href="/wiki/1991-92_NHL_season" title="1991-92 NHL season">1991–92</span>, <span href="/wiki/1993-94_NHL_season" title="1993-94 NHL season">1993–94</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Marcel_Dionne" title="Marcel Dionne">Marcel Dionne</span>: <span href="/wiki/1978-79_NHL_season" title="1978-79 NHL season">1978–79</span>, <span href="/wiki/1979-80_NHL_season" title="1979-80 NHL season">1979–80</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Terry_Sawchuk" title="Terry Sawchuk">Terry Sawchuk</span>: <span href="/wiki/1970-71_NHL_season" title="1970-71 NHL season">1970–71</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Bruce_McNall" title="Bruce McNall">Bruce McNall</span>: <span href="/wiki/1992-93_NHL_season" title="1992-93 NHL season">1992–93</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>: <span href="/wiki/1993-94_NHL_season" title="1993-94 NHL season">1993–94</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Marty_McSorley" title="Marty McSorley">Marty McSorley</span>: <span href="/wiki/1990-91_NHL_season" title="1990-91 NHL season">1990–91</span> <small>(shared with <span href="/wiki/Theoren_Fleury" title="Theoren Fleury">Theoren Fleury</span> of the <span href="/wiki/Calgary_Flames" title="Calgary Flames">Calgary Flames</span>)</small> <b> NHL awards and trophies</b><br /> <span name="Miscellaneous" id="Miscellaneous"></span><br /> Most Goals in a season: <span href="/wiki/Bernie_Nicholls" title="Bernie Nicholls">Bernie Nicholls</span>, 70 (1988–89)<br /> Most Assists in a season: <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>, 122 (1990–91)<br /> Most Points in a season: <span href="/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky" title="Wayne Gretzky">Wayne Gretzky</span>, 168 (1988–89)<br /> Most Points in a game: <span href="/wiki/Bernie_Nicholls" title="Bernie Nicholls">Bernie Nicholls</span>, 8 (1988–89)<br /> Most Penalty Minutes in a season: <span href="/wiki/Marty_McSorley" title="Marty McSorley">Marty McSorley</span>, 399 (1992–93)<br /> Most Points in a season, defenseman: <span href="/wiki/Larry_Murphy" title="Larry Murphy">Larry Murphy</span>, 76 (1980–81)<br /> Most Points in a season, rookie: <span href="/wiki/Luc_Robitaille" title="Luc Robitaille">Luc Robitaille</span>, 84 (1986–87)<br /> Most Wins in a season: <span href="/wiki/Mario_Lessard" title="Mario Lessard">Mario Lessard</span>, 35 (1980–81)<br /> Most Shutouts in a season: <span href="/wiki/Rogie_Vachon" title="Rogie Vachon">Rogie Vachon</span>, 8 (1976–77) <b> Franchise individual records</b><br /> <span name="General_managers" id="General_managers"></span><br /> <b> General managers</b><br /> <span name="References_and_footnotes" id="References_and_footnotes"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/1967_NHL_Expansion" title="1967 NHL Expansion">1967 NHL Expansion</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_NHL_players" title="List of NHL players">List of NHL players</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_NHL_seasons" title="List of NHL seasons">List of NHL seasons</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-13334135913072120922008-04-20T11:40:00.001-04:002008-04-20T11:40:05.210-04:00<img src="http://richter.uprm.edu/~jclinton/Lectures/4/4sensors_files/image158.jpg" alt="Richter scale" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <b>The Richter magnitude scale</b>, or more correctly <b>local magnitude</b> <i>M</i><sub>L</sub> scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an <span href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</span>. It is a base-10 <span href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">logarithmic scale</span> obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal <span href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</span> of the largest displacement from zero on a <span href="/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer">seismometer</span> output. Measurements have no limits and can be either positive or negative.<br /> <span name="Development" id="Development"></span><br /> <b> Richter magnitudes</b><br /> <span name="See_also" id="See_also"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-10531145447909576452008-04-19T12:32:00.001-04:002008-04-19T12:32:35.406-04:00 <b></b><br /> <span class="fn org">University of Reading</span><br /> The <b>University of Reading</b> is a leading <span href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</span> in the <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</span> town of <span href="/wiki/Reading%2C_Berkshire" title="Reading, Berkshire">Reading, Berkshire</span>.<br /> Established in 1892, receiving its <span href="/wiki/Royal_Charter" title="Royal Charter">Royal Charter</span> in 1926, the University has a long tradition of research, education and training at a local, national and international level. It was awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education in 1998, and again in 2005.<br /> With around 3,000 international students from 120 countries, the university adds considerably to Reading's dynamic.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <b> History</b><br /> The University maintains over <span href="/wiki/1_E6_m%C2%B2" title="1 E6 m²">1.6 km²</span> (395 acres) of grounds, in three distinct campuses:<br /> <span href="/wiki/Whiteknights_Park" title="Whiteknights Park">Whiteknights Campus</span>, at <span href="/wiki/1_E6_m%C2%B2" title="1 E6 m²">1.23 km²</span> (304 acres), is the largest and includes Whiteknights Lake, conservation meadows and woodlands as well as most of the University's departments. The campus takes its name from the nickname of the <span href="/wiki/13th_century" title="13th century">13th century</span> <span href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=John_De_Erleigh_IV&action=edit" class="new" title="John De Erleigh IV">John De Erleigh IV</span> or the 'White Knight', and was landscaped in the <span href="/wiki/18th_century" title="18th century">18th century</span> by <span href="/wiki/John_Churchill%2C_1st_Duke_of_Marlborough" title="John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough">Marquis of Blandford</span>. The main University library, in the middle of the campus, holds nearly a million books and subscribes to around 4,000 periodicals.<br /> The smaller <span href="/wiki/London_Road_Campus" title="London Road Campus">London Road Campus</span> is the original University site and is much closer to the town centre of Reading. Moreover, it plays host to the University graduation ceremonies at the Great Hall and is still home to the School of Continuing Education.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Bulmershe_Court" title="Bulmershe Court">Bulmershe Court Campus</span> in <span href="/wiki/Woodley" title="Woodley">Woodley</span> is home to the Institute of Education and the School of Health and Social Care. It also has the largest hall of residence of the University.<br /> The University also owns <span href="/wiki/1_E6_m%C2%B2" title="1 E6 m²">8.5 km²</span> (2100 acres) of farmland in the nearby villages of <span href="/wiki/Arborfield" title="Arborfield">Arborfield</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sonning" title="Sonning">Sonning</span> and <span href="/wiki/Shinfield" title="Shinfield">Shinfield</span>. These support a mixed farming system including dairy cows, ewes and beef animals, and host research centres of which the flagship is the Centre for Dairy Research.<br /> <span name="Research_and_Business_Development" id="Research_and_Business_Development"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.rusu.co.uk/web/MultimediaFiles/SALLY-RESIZED.JPG" alt="Reading University" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Campuses</b><br /> The university had a research income of almost £24.5 million in 2003-4, of which around 10 percent of annual research income derived from industrial or commercial sponsors. Over £2 million of funding has been secured in 2004 for business development and the commercial activities at the University.<br /> In the Research Assessment Exercise in 2001, five departments were awarded the top rate of 5* - <span href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</span>, <span href="/wiki/English_studies" title="English studies">English</span>, <span href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</span>, <span href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</span> and <span href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</span> and fifteen departments were awarded the rating of 5. The Department of Meteorology was awarded a distinguished <span href="/w/index.php?title=Queen%E2%80%99s_Anniversary_Prize_for_Higher_and_Further_Education&action=edit" class="new" title="Queen's Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education">Queen's Anniversary Prize for Higher and Further Education</span> in 2005 and is internationally renowned for its training and research in weather, <span href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</span> and physical <span href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</span>. Research centres include the Centre for Horticulture and Landscape, the BioCentre and the <span href="/wiki/Centre_for_Advanced_Microscopy_%28University_of_Reading%29" title="Centre for Advanced Microscopy (University of Reading)">Centre for Advanced Microscopy</span>.<br /> Reading was the first university to win a <span href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Award_for_Enterprise" title="Queen's Award for Enterprise">Queen's Award for Export Achievement</span> in 1989. Since then several initiatives to link the academic and commercial communities have followed. <span href="/wiki/Reading_Enterprise_Hub" title="Reading Enterprise Hub">Reading Enterprise Hub</span>, one of a network of <span href="/wiki/South_East_England_Development_Agency" title="South East England Development Agency">SEEDA</span> sponsored <span href="/wiki/Business_incubators" title="Business incubators">business incubators</span>, opened on campus in 2003.<br /> <span name="ACET_Centre" id="ACET_Centre"></span><br /> <b> Research and Business Development</b><br /> The major aim of the Centre for Advanced Computing and Emerging Technologies (ACET) is to demonstrate and promote new ways of doing multidisciplinary research based on the approach of "scientific discovery through advanced computing".<br /> <span name="Community" id="Community"></span><br /> <b> ACET Centre</b><br /> In the 2004–05 academic year, the university had 4,024 staff and 15,326 students. The best known member of the university community is probably the <span href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cyberneticist</span> Professor <span href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</span>.<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Reading_University_Students%27_Union&action=edit" class="new" title="Reading University Students' Union">Reading University Students' Union</span> is the affiliated student organisation which represents the students' interests. The Students' Union publishes <span href="/w/index.php?title=Spark_%28University_of_Reading_newspaper%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Spark (University of Reading newspaper)">Spark</span>, a bi-weekly newspaper aimed at the student population of the University, which was weekly until October 2006 (it is now published fortnightly during term-time). The university also has a number of <span href="/wiki/Junior_Common_Room" title="Junior Common Room">Junior Common Rooms</span> that are nominally independent from the Students' Union and the University.<br /> The Students' Union building on Whiteknights Campus contains an 1800 capacity venue, two bars, a number of retail outlets, and The HUB. The HUB is the Union's new volunteer, advice, student activity centre.<br /> <span name="University_Halls_and_accommodation" id="University_Halls_and_accommodation"></span><br /> <b> Community</b><br /> Student accommodation is provided in a number of halls of residence offering a good mix of partially-catered (under review) and self-catering accommodation, along with other self-catering accommodation. Most of the halls of residence lie close to the northern campus periphery and in residential areas close by.<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Bulmershe_Hall&action=edit" class="new" title="Bulmershe Hall">Bulmershe Hall</span> is located on the Bulmershe Campus. <span href="/wiki/Bridges_Hall" title="Bridges Hall">Bridges</span>, <span href="/wiki/Childs_Hall" title="Childs Hall">Childs</span>, <span href="/wiki/Wessex_Hall" title="Wessex Hall">Wessex</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Whiteknights_Hall&action=edit" class="new" title="Whiteknights Hall">Whiteknights</span>, and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Windsor_Hall&action=edit" class="new" title="Windsor Hall">Windsor</span> Halls are located on the Whiteknights Campus. <span href="/wiki/St._George%E2%80%99s_Hall%2C_Reading" title="St. George's Hall, Reading">St. George's</span>, <span href="/wiki/St._Patrick%E2%80%99s_Hall" title="St. Patrick's Hall">St. Patrick's</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sherfield_Hall" title="Sherfield Hall">Sherfield</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sibly_Hall" title="Sibly Hall">Sibly</span>, <span href="/wiki/Wantage_Hall" title="Wantage Hall">Wantage</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Wells_Hall" title="Wells Hall">Wells</span> Halls are located in the residential areas surrounding Whiteknights, as is the self-catering accommodation of the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Reading_Student_Village&action=edit" class="new" title="Reading Student Village">Reading Student Village</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Hillside_Court&action=edit" class="new" title="Hillside Court">Hillside Court</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Martindale_Court&action=edit" class="new" title="Martindale Court">Martindale Court</span>.<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=St._David%27s_Hall%2C_University_of_Reading&action=edit" class="new" title="St. David's Hall, University of Reading">St. David's</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Mansfield_Hall&action=edit" class="new" title="Mansfield Hall">Mansfield</span> Halls latterly formed part of Witan Hall (see below) on the London Road Campus, and are not currently in use. The former <span href="/wiki/Museum_of_English_Rural_Life" title="Museum of English Rural Life">St. Andrews Hall</span> closed in 2001, and is now the home of the Museum of English Rural Life.<br /> St. George's Hall and The Reading Student Village are leased back to the University from <span href="/wiki/UJC" title="UJC">UJC</span>. The cost of leasing back the Student Village to the University, according to the University accounts, was £1.5 million for 2003–04 and £1.3 million in 2002–03.<br /> <span name="Sport" id="Sport"></span><br /> <b> University Halls and accommodation</b><br /> The University is successful at a number of sports, including <span href="/wiki/Sport_rowing" title="Sport rowing">rowing</span>, <span href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hockey" title="Hockey">hockey</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Squash_%28sport%29" title="Squash (sport)">squash</span>. In particular, they are highly successful at <span href="/wiki/Sport_rowing" title="Sport rowing">Rowing</span> and the Reading University Boat Club has won many awards and competitions, its most recent BUSA placing being second on points at the 2007 BUSA Regatta. The club won the Visitors Challenge Cup for coxless fours at <span href="/wiki/Henley_Royal_Regatta" title="Henley Royal Regatta">Henley Royal Regatta</span> in 1986, and reached the final of the same event in 2007, where they were defeated by local rivals Leander Club. <span href="http://www.rubc.net" class="external text" title="http://www.rubc.net" rel="nofollow">RUBC</span> attracts many international oarsmen through its links with the GB Squad training facility at Caversham Lake and the GB Rowing World Class Scheme. Current and past students to acheive international representation and success include <span href="/wiki/James_Cracknell" title="James Cracknell">James Cracknell</span> (Olympic Gold 2000, 2004), Gary Herbert (Olympic Gold 1992), <span href="/wiki/Debbie_Flood" title="Debbie Flood">Debbie Flood</span> (Olympic Silver 2004, World Championship Gold 2006, 2007), Tash Page (Under 23 Gold 2005), Anna Bebington (World Championship Bronze 2007), Sam Townsend (GB Men's Quad 2007), Alex Gregory (GB Men's Quad 2007), Bill Lucas (Under 23 Bronze 2007) and Charles Cousins (Under 23 Bronze 2007). The Boat Club has been the highest ranked university club at the Fuller's <span href="/w/index.php?title=Head_of_The_River_Fours&action=edit" class="new" title="Head of The River Fours">Head of The River Fours</span> for the last two years, with its Elite Men's boat finishing 4th Overall in 2006 and 3rd in 2007. In 2007, the Men's Association Football team became the highest placed in University history by winning the BUSA South East Division 1A Title and entering the BUSA Cup as one of the top 16 teams in the country. In 2007 the Men's Hockey 1st XI won the renowned British universities sports tournament, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Dublin_Fest&action=edit" class="new" title="Dublin Fest">Dublin Fest</span>.<br /> <span name="Societies_Full_Article" id="Societies_Full_Article"></span><br /> <b> Sport</b><br /> The University of Reading has 60 societies open to its students<br /> See full article for the full listing<br /> <span name="Student_Radio" id="Student_Radio"></span><br /> <b> Societies Full Article</b><br /> <span href="/wiki/Junction11" title="Junction11">Junction11</span> is the student radio station at The University of Reading.<br /> <span name="Museums_and_botanical_gardens" id="Museums_and_botanical_gardens"></span><br /> <b> Student Radio</b><br /> Reading University maintains four <span href="/wiki/Museum" title="Museum">museums</span> and a <span href="/wiki/Botanical_garden" title="Botanical garden">botanical garden</span>. The largest and best known of these is the <span href="/wiki/Museum_of_English_Rural_Life" title="Museum of English Rural Life">Museum of English Rural Life</span>, which has recently relocated from a location on Whiteknights Campus to a site nearer the town centre on the London Road Campus. The <span href="/wiki/Ure_Museum_of_Greek_Archaeology" title="Ure Museum of Greek Archaeology">Ure Museum of Greek Archaeology</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Cole_Museum_of_Zoology" title="Cole Museum of Zoology">Cole Museum of Zoology</span>, the <span href="/wiki/University_of_Reading_Herbarium" title="University of Reading Herbarium">University of Reading Herbarium</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Harris_Garden" title="Harris Garden">Harris Garden</span> are all located on the Whiteknights Campus.<br /> <span name="Associated_institutions" id="Associated_institutions"></span><br /> <b> Museums and botanical gardens</b><br /> Formerly associated with Reading University was Gyosei International College, a <span href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japanese</span>/<span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</span> bi-cultural institution established on part of the University's original London Road Campus. Subsequently the college's links with the Japan-based <span href="/w/index.php?title=Gyosei&action=edit" class="new" title="Gyosei">Gyosei</span> organisation were broken, and it became a charitably funded institution called Witan Hall. Recently this has in turn been purchased by the University of Reading, and has ceased student recruitment and will finally close in March 2008.<br /> The University of Reading Law faculty is also associated with <span href="/wiki/Taylors_College" title="Taylors College">Taylors College</span> in <span href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</span>. Taylors College conducts a 'twinning' program whereby students complete half of their degree in Malaysia and the other half at the University of Reading. Malaysian Law students in Reading generally achieve a second class upper average, and have set a high standard for Malaysian Law students.<br /> Located on Reading University's Whiteknights campus is The <span href="/w/index.php?title=College_of_Estate_Management&action=edit" class="new" title="College of Estate Management">College of Estate Management</span> (CEM). The College was founded in 1919 and granted its Royal Charter in 1922. It was originally based in London but moved to Reading in 1969, leading to the foundation of the Faculty of Urban and Regional Studies (URS) at the University. The College provides education and training for students and members of the property and construction professions worldwide through distance learning. Courses are delivered by the provision of printed material sent to students by post and through web-based learning.<br /> The <span href="/w/index.php?title=Walker_Institute&action=edit" class="new" title="Walker Institute">Walker Institute</span>, a pioneering centre for climate research, is based at the University of Reading. The Institute aims to exploit and integrate the climate expertise within the University and to address fundamental questions in understanding and forecasting climate variability and its impacts.<br /> <span name="Governance" id="Governance"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.edusite.nl/docs/edusite/quad.jpg" alt="Reading University" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Governance</b><br /> The university is nominally led by a <span href="/wiki/Chancellor_%28education%29" title="Chancellor (education)">Chancellor</span>, who is the titular head of the university, and is normally a well known public figure. The day to day chief executive role is the responsibility of the <span href="/wiki/Vice-Chancellor" title="Vice-Chancellor">Vice-Chancellor</span>, a full time academic post. The senior management board of the university is headed by the Vice-Chancellor, assisted by a Deputy-Vice-Chancellor, three Pro-Vice-Chancellors, four Deans and five Heads of Directorate. It is responsible for the day-to-day management of the University and meets fortnightly throughout most of the year.<br /> <span name="Officers_of_the_University" id="Officers_of_the_University"></span><br /> <b> Officers of the University</b><br /> <b>Politicians</b><br /> <b>Mathematicians/Scientists</b><br /> <b>Musicians</b><br /> <b>Sportspeople</b><br /> <b>Broadcasters</b><br /> <b>Writers/Artists</b><br /> <b>Others</b><br /> <b>Fictional alumni</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Anton_Apriantono" title="Anton Apriantono">Anton Apriantono</span> - food technology scientist, serving as <span href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</span>'s Minister of Agriculture since <span href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Edison_James" title="Edison James">Edison James</span> - <span href="/wiki/Prime_Minister" title="Prime Minister">Prime Minister</span> of <span href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</span> 1995-2000, <span href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_%28Dominica%29" title="Leader of the Opposition (Dominica)">Leader of the Opposition</span>, 1990-1995 and 2000-2007.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Mike_Penning" title="Mike Penning">Mike Penning</span> - <span href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</span> <span href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament" title="Member of Parliament">Member of Parliament</span> for the <span href="/wiki/Hemel_Hempstead_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29" title="Hemel Hempstead (UK Parliament constituency)">Hemel Hempstead parliamentary constituency</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Rob_Wilson" title="Rob Wilson">Rob Wilson</span> - <span href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</span> <span href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament" title="Member of Parliament">Member of Parliament</span> for the <span href="/wiki/Reading_East_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29" title="Reading East (UK Parliament constituency)">Reading East parliamentary constituency</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Peter_Crane" title="Peter Crane">Sir Peter Crane</span> - Director, <span href="/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Kew" title="Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/E._A._Guggenheim" title="E. A. Guggenheim">E. A. Guggenheim</span> - <span href="/wiki/Thermodynamicist" title="Thermodynamicist">thermodynamicist</span> and <span href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Dragan_Maru%C5%A1i%C4%8D" title="Dragan Marušič">Dragan Marušič</span> - <span href="/wiki/Slovenes" title="Slovenes">Slovene</span> <span href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/A._E._Wilder-Smith" title="A. E. Wilder-Smith">A. E. Wilder-Smith</span> - <span href="/wiki/Creationist" title="Creationist">creationist</span> and <span href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</span><br /> Roger Wayman - <span href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</span> and <span href="/wiki/Publisher" title="Publisher">publisher</span><br /> Roger Stewart - Physicist<br /> Dennis Dunn - Physicist<br /> <span href="/wiki/Arthur_Brown_%28musician%29" title="Arthur Brown (musician)">Arthur Brown</span> - <span href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</span> singer<br /> <span href="/wiki/Jamie_Cullum" title="Jamie Cullum">Jamie Cullum</span> - <span href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</span> <span href="/wiki/Pianist" title="Pianist">pianist</span> and <span href="/wiki/Singer" title="Singer">singer</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Hilary_James" title="Hilary James">Hilary James</span> - <span href="/wiki/Singer" title="Singer">singer</span>, <span href="/wiki/Double_bassist" title="Double bassist">double bassist</span>, <span href="/wiki/Guitarist" title="Guitarist">guitarist</span>, and mando-bassist<br /> <span href="/wiki/Simon_Mayor" title="Simon Mayor">Simon Mayor</span> - <span href="/w/index.php?title=Mandolinist&action=edit" class="new" title="Mandolinist">mandolinist</span>, <span href="/wiki/Fiddle_player" title="Fiddle player">fiddle player</span>, <span href="/wiki/Guitarist" title="Guitarist">guitarist</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Composer" title="Composer">composer</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Noble_%28musician%29" title="Noble (musician)">Martin Noble</span> - musician, <i>Noble</i> in the band <span href="/wiki/British_Sea_Power" title="British Sea Power">British Sea Power</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Yan_%28musician%29" title="Yan (musician)">Scott Wilkinson</span> - musician, <i>Yan</i> in the band <span href="/wiki/British_Sea_Power" title="British Sea Power">British Sea Power</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/James_Cracknell" title="James Cracknell">James Cracknell</span> - <span href="/wiki/Sport_rowing" title="Sport rowing">rowing</span> champion and double <span href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic</span> gold medallist.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Debbie_Flood" title="Debbie Flood">Debbie Flood</span> - <span href="/wiki/Sport_rowing" title="Sport rowing">rowing</span> champion, quadruple sculls silver medallist at the <span href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</span> <span href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympics</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Gary_Herbert" title="Gary Herbert">Gary Herbert</span> - <span href="/wiki/Sport_rowing" title="Sport rowing">rowing</span> He won Olympic gold with Greg and Jonny Searl in the coxed pair in Barcelona <span href="/wiki/1992" title="1992">1992</span> <span href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympics</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Molly_Hide" title="Molly Hide">Molly Hide</span>, captained <span href="/wiki/English_women%27s_cricket_team" title="English women's cricket team">English women's cricket team</span> for seventeen years<br /> <span href="/wiki/Julian_Barratt" title="Julian Barratt">Julian Barratt</span> - <span href="/wiki/Comedian" title="Comedian">comedian</span> from <span href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</span>'s <span href="/wiki/The_Mighty_Boosh" title="The Mighty Boosh">The Mighty Boosh</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Keith_Bosley" title="Keith Bosley">Keith Bosley</span> - former <span href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</span> broadcaster and prizewinning <span href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poet</span> and <span href="/wiki/Translator" title="Translator">translator</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Richard_Holmes_%28military_historian%29" title="Richard Holmes (military historian)">Richard Holmes</span> - noted <span href="/wiki/Military_historian" title="Military historian">military historian</span> and <span href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</span> presenter<br /> <span href="/wiki/Kaddy_Lee-Preston" title="Kaddy Lee-Preston">Kaddy Lee-Preston</span>, TV weather presenter.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Julian_Richards" title="Julian Richards">Julian Richards</span> - <span href="/wiki/Archaeologist" title="Archaeologist">archaeologist</span> and broadcaster<br /> <span href="/wiki/Richard_Sambrook" title="Richard Sambrook">Richard Sambrook</span> - Director of the <span href="/wiki/BBC_World_Service" title="BBC World Service">BBC World Service</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Tomasz_Schafernaker" title="Tomasz Schafernaker">Tomasz Schafernaker</span>, TV weather presenter.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Jay_Wynne" title="Jay Wynne">Jay Wynne</span>, TV weather presenter.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Robert_Gillmor" title="Robert Gillmor">Robert Gillmor</span> - <span href="/wiki/Ornithologist" title="Ornithologist">ornithologist</span>, <span href="/wiki/Artist" title="Artist">artist</span>, <span href="/wiki/Illustrator" title="Illustrator">illustrator</span>, <span href="/wiki/Author" title="Author">author</span> and <span href="/wiki/Editing" title="Editing">editor</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Joan_Smith_%28novelist_and_journalist%29" title="Joan Smith (novelist and journalist)">Joan Smith</span> - novelist and journalist<br /> <span href="/wiki/Richard_Wilson_%28installation_artist%29" title="Richard Wilson (installation artist)">Richard Wilson</span> - <span href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">installation artist</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Eve_Balfour" title="Eve Balfour">Eve Balfour</span> - farmer, educator, <span href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">organic farming</span> pioneer, and a founding figure in the <span href="/wiki/Organic_movement" title="Organic movement">organic movement</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Azahari_Husin" title="Azahari Husin">Azahari Husin</span> - leading member of the <span href="/wiki/Jemaah_Islamiyah" title="Jemaah Islamiyah">Jemaah Islamiyah</span> group, believed to have been involved in the <span href="/wiki/2005_Bali_bombing" title="2005 Bali bombing">2005 Bali bombing</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Robin_Bextor" title="Robin Bextor">Robin Bextor</span> - award-winning film and television director, and father of <span href="/wiki/Sophie_Ellis_Bextor" title="Sophie Ellis Bextor">Sophie Ellis Bextor</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Clive_Ponting" title="Clive Ponting">Clive Ponting</span> - <span href="/wiki/Civil_servant" title="Civil servant">civil servant</span> who faced trial for the leaking information on the sinking of the <span href="/wiki/ARA_General_Belgrano" title="ARA General Belgrano">Belgrano</span>, during the <span href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</span>.<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Arnold_Baffin&action=edit" class="new" title="Arnold Baffin">Arnold Baffin</span> - novelist character in <span href="/wiki/The_Black_Prince_%28novel%29" title="The Black Prince (novel)">The Black Prince</span> by <span href="/wiki/Iris_Murdoch" title="Iris Murdoch">Iris Murdoch</span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Blaise_Gavender&action=edit" class="new" title="Blaise Gavender">Blaise Gavender</span> - psychologist and former Reading psychology lecturer in <span href="/w/index.php?title=The_Sacred_and_Profane_Love_Machine&action=edit" class="new" title="The Sacred and Profane Love Machine">The Sacred and Profane Love Machine</span> by <span href="/wiki/Iris_Murdoch" title="Iris Murdoch">Iris Murdoch</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-9379991998688325262008-04-18T12:49:00.001-04:002008-04-18T12:49:32.716-04:00<img src="http://bigexplosions.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/activities/elements_trail_mix.jpg" alt="Abundance of elements on Earth" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> The <b>abundance</b> of a <span href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</span> measures how relatively common the element is, or how much of the element there is by comparison to all other elements. Abundance may be variously measured by the mass-fraction (the same as weight fraction), or mole-fraction (fraction of atoms, or sometimes fraction of molecules, in gases), or by volume fraction. Measurement by volume-fraction is a common abundance measure in mixed gases such as atmospheres, which is close to molecular mole-fraction for ideal gas mixtures (i.e., gas mixtures at relatively low densities and pressures).<br /> For example, the mass-fraction abundance of oxygen in water is about 89%, because that is the fraction of water's mass which is oxygen. However, the mole-fraction abundance of oxygen in water is only 33% because only 1 atom in 3 in water is an oxygen atom. In the universe as a whole, and in the atmospheres of gas-giant planets such as Jupiter, the mass-fraction abundances of hydrogen and helium are about 74% and 23-25% respectively, while the (atomic) mole-fractions of these elements are closer to 92% and 8%. However, since hydrogen is diatomic while helium is not in the conditions of Jupiter's outer atmosphere, the <i>molecular</i> mole-fraction (fraction of total gas molecules, or fraction of atmosphere by volume) of hydrogen in the outer atmosphere of Jupiter is about 86%, and for helium, 13%.<br /> Most abundances in this article are given as mass-fraction abundances.<br /> <span name="Abundance_of_elements_in_the_Universe" id="Abundance_of_elements_in_the_Universe"></span><br /> <b> Abundance of elements in the Universe</b><br /> <span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <span href="/wiki/Earth#Chemical_composition" title="Earth">Earth#Chemical composition</span></i></span><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</span> formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the <span href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_solar_system" title="Formation and evolution of the solar system">formation and evolution of the solar system</span>. The <span href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">history of Earth</span> caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements.<br /> <span name="Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth.27s_crust" id="Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth.27s_crust"></span><br /> <img src="http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs087-02/images/fig05.jpg" alt="Abundance of elements on Earth" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Abundance of elements in Earth's crust</b><br /> "Rare" earth elements is a historical misnomer; persistence of the term reflects unfamiliarity rather than true rarity. The more abundant rare earth elements are each similar in crustal concentration to commonplace industrial metals such as chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, or lead. Even the two least abundant rare earth elements (Tm, Lu) are nearly 200 times more common than gold. However, in contrast to ordinary base and precious metals, rare earth elements have very little tendency to become concentrated in exploitable ore deposits. Consequently, most of the world's supply of rare earth elements comes from only a handful of sources.<br /> Differences in abundances of individual rare earth elements in the upper continental crust of Earth represent the superposition of two effects, one nuclear and one geochemical. First, rare earth elements with even atomic numbers (<sub>58</sub>Ce, <sub>60</sub>Nd, ...) have greater cosmic and terrestrial abundances than adjacent rare earth elements with odd atomic numbers (<sub>57</sub>La, <sub>59</sub>Pr, ...). Second, the lighter rare earth elements are more incompatible (because they have larger ionic radii) and therefore more strongly concentrated in the continental crust than the heavier rare earth elements. In most rare earth deposits, the first four rare earth elements - La, Ce, Pr, and Nd - constitute 80 to 99% of the total.<br /> <span name="Ocean" id="Ocean"></span><br /> <b> "Rare earth" element abundances</b><br /> See <span href="/wiki/Sea_water" title="Sea water">sea water</span> for abundance of elements in the ocean, but note that that list is by mass - a list by <span href="/wiki/Molarity" title="Molarity">molarity</span> (mole-fraction) would look very different, especially as regards the first 4 elements; specifically, hydrogen would comprise well over half of such a list.<br /> <span name="Atmosphere" id="Atmosphere"></span><br /> <b> Ocean</b><br /> The order of elements by volume-fraction (which is approximately molecular mole-fraction) in the <span href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</span> is <span href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</span> (78.1%), <span href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</span> (20.9%), <span href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</span> (0.96%), followed by (in uncertain order) carbon and hydrogen. The carbon and hydrogen concentrations are variable for a number of reasons, including human activity. Sulfur, phosphorus, and all other elements are present in significantly lower proportions.<br /> According to the above graphic, argon, a significant if not major component of the atmosphere, does not appear in the crust at all.<br /> <span name="Human_body" id="Human_body"></span><br /> <b> Human body</b><br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Abundances_of_the_elements_%28data_page%29" title="Abundances of the elements (data page)">Abundances of the elements (data page)</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Chemical_composition_of_living_beings" title="Chemical composition of living beings">Chemical composition of living beings</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Chemical_Galaxy" title="Chemical Galaxy">Chemical Galaxy</span> (a new periodic table)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Chemical_makeup_of_the_human_body" title="Chemical makeup of the human body">Chemical makeup of the human body</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Cosmochemical_Periodic_Table_of_the_Elements_in_the_Solar_System" title="Cosmochemical Periodic Table of the Elements in the Solar System">Cosmochemical Periodic Table of the Elements in the Solar System</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">Natural abundance</span> (isotopic abundance)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-36662821850619869832008-04-17T13:36:00.001-04:002008-04-17T13:36:33.837-04:00<img src="http://digitaldaily.allthingsd.com/files/2007/06/dvdfinishhim.jpg" alt="DVD Consortium" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> The <b>DVD Forum</b> is an international organization composed of hardware, software, media and content companies that use and develop the <span href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</span> and <span href="/wiki/HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</span> formats. It was initially known as the <b>DVD Consortium</b> when it was founded in <span href="/wiki/1995" title="1995">1995</span>.<br /> <span name="Mission" id="Mission"></span><br /> <b> Mission</b><br /> The DVD Forum is responsible for the official DVD format specification. The group handles licensing of the DVD format and logo through the DVD Format and Logo Licensing Corporation (DVD FLLC), which also publishes the official specifications in book form. Reference materials and newsletters are published for DVD Forum members.<br /> <span name="Structure" id="Structure"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.techcentral.ie/img/thumbnail/home_pc/bluray_hddvd_defeat4828.jpg" alt="DVD Consortium" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Founding members</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc" title="Blu-ray Disc">Blu-ray Disc</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/DVD%2BRW_Alliance" title="DVD+RW Alliance">DVD+RW Alliance</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-36462162040049759372008-04-16T11:17:00.001-04:002008-04-16T11:17:22.167-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Bay Street</b> is a Lower City arterial road in <span href="/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario" title="Hamilton, Ontario">Hamilton, Ontario</span>, <span href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</span>. It starts at <span href="/wiki/Aberdeen_Avenue_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Aberdeen Avenue (Hamilton, Ontario)">Aberdeen Avenue</span>, as a collector road with only two lanes, then eventually becomes a six lane thoroughfare at its peak. Bay Street also passes through Downtown Hamilton, where many high-rise buildings are found. Bay Street is a one-way street from <i>Aberdeen Avenue</i> to <span href="/wiki/Cannon_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Cannon Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">Cannon Street West</span>. Bay Street continues as an arterial route and eventually ends at a curb at <i>Pier 4 Park</i> at <span href="/wiki/Burlington_Street_%28Hamilton%29" title="Burlington Street (Hamilton)">Burlington Street</span> in the city's <i>North End</i>.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.baristanet.com/Bay%2520Street%2520Art.jpg" alt="Bay Street (Hamilton)" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> History</b><br /> The <i>Great Lakes Expo7</i> is a 3-day annual springtime festival held at <i>Bayfront Park</i> and <i>Pier 4 Park</i>. Free admission for the whole family to enjoy. The purpose of the festival is to improve people's knowledge of how everyone can improve and protect the fresh water within the <span href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</span>. Also included, an Adventure Zone, Enviro Zone, Kid's Zone, Full size Midway, Live Music, Food vendors, Arts & Crafts and more. In 2007 the festival was held the last weekend of May. <br /> <span name="Waterfront_Shuttle" id="Waterfront_Shuttle"></span><br /> <b> Festivals</b><br /> The <i>Waterfront Shuttle</i> is a free service offered by the <span href="/wiki/Hamilton_Street_Railway" title="Hamilton Street Railway">Hamilton Street Railway</span>. It has a seasonal schedule that runs weekends from May-to-October connecting Hamilton's downtown core to the waterfront and attractions that can be found there like <span href="/wiki/HMCS_Haida" title="HMCS Haida">HMCS Haida</span> and the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Parks_Canada_Discovery_Centre&action=edit" class="new" title="Parks Canada Discovery Centre">Parks Canada Discovery Centre</span>. The route circles Hamilton's downtown core around <span href="/wiki/York_Boulevard_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="York Boulevard (Hamilton, Ontario)">York Boulevard</span> (north), Bay Street South (west), <span href="/wiki/King_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="King Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">King Street West</span> (south) and <span href="/wiki/James_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="James Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">James Street North</span> (east). Then it travels north along James Street and the Art District until it reaches the waterfront at <i>Guise Street</i> past the <span href="/wiki/Royal_Hamilton_Yacht_Club" title="Royal Hamilton Yacht Club">Royal Hamilton Yacht Club</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Hamilton_Chamber_of_Commerce&action=edit" class="new" title="Hamilton Chamber of Commerce">Hamilton Chamber of Commerce</span> and the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Harbour_West_Marina_Complex&action=edit" class="new" title="Harbour West Marina Complex">Harbour West Marina Complex</span>. Then the route hangs a left on <i>Discovery Drive</i>, the site of the <i>Parks Canada Discovery Centre</i>. Also at this site is the <i>Hamilton Harbour Queen</i> (cruise boat), <i>Hamiltonian</i> (tour boat) and the <i>Hamilton Waterfront Trolley</i>. <br /> <span name="Hamilton_Waterfront_Trolley" id="Hamilton_Waterfront_Trolley"></span><br /> <b> Waterfront Shuttle</b><br /> The <i>Hamilton Waterfront Trolley</i> is a narrated tour along the 12 kilometre <i>Hamilton Waterfront Trail</i>. The main stop and departure spot is at the Hamilton Waterfront <i>SCOOPS</i> Ice Cream parlour, which provides the famous <i>Stoney Creek Dairy Ice Cream</i>. There are a dozen stops along the way between Princess Point at the western-end of the route to the eastern-end, the site of <span href="/wiki/HMCS_Haida" title="HMCS Haida">HMCS Haida</span>. Also near this eastern-end route is the site of the <i>Hamiltonian Tour Boat</i>, which is a 12-passenger tour boat that offers a leisurely guided tour of Hamilton harbour with the captain providing interesting stories and history of one of North America's most noteworthy harbours. In addition to this there is also the <i>Hamilton Harbour Queen Cruises</i> which is another ship that offers 3-hour tour of the harbour along with Lunch, Dinner or other special events like Dance parties. This Harbour Queen Cruise was also the 2005 winner of the Hamilton Tourism Awards for "best tourism idea." <br /> <span name="Landmarks" id="Landmarks"></span><br /> <b> Hamilton Waterfront Trolley</b><br /> <i>Note: Listing of Landmarks from North to South.</i><br /> <span name="Communities" id="Communities"></span><br /> Hamilton Waterfront Trail<br /> Entrance to <span href="/w/index.php?title=Bayfront_Park_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Bayfront Park (Hamilton, Ontario)">Bayfront Park</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Pier_4_Park_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Pier 4 Park (Hamilton, Ontario)">Pier 4 Park</span><br /> Entrance to <span href="/w/index.php?title=Macassa_Bay_Yacht_Club&action=edit" class="new" title="Macassa Bay Yacht Club">Macassa Bay Yacht Club</span><br /> Bayview Hotel<br /> Simcoe Tot Lot<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Park_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Central Park (Hamilton, Ontario)">Central Park</span><br /> Staybridge Suites by <span href="/wiki/Holiday_Inn" title="Holiday Inn">Holiday Inn</span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Building_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Federal Building (Hamilton, Ontario)">Federal Building</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Copps_Coliseum" title="Copps Coliseum">Copps Coliseum</span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_Life_Building&action=edit" class="new" title="Standard Life Building">Standard Life Building</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Sheraton_Hamilton" title="Sheraton Hamilton">Sheraton Hamilton</span> (hotel), just East of <i>Bay Street North</i> on <i>King Street West</i>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Lloyd_D._Jackson_Square_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Lloyd D. Jackson Square (Hamilton, Ontario)">Lloyd D. Jackson Square</span> (mall)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Hamilton-Wentworth_District_School_Board" title="Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board">Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Hamilton_City_Hall" title="Hamilton City Hall">Hamilton City Hall</span><br /> Bay 200, residential apartment building (Hamilton's 10th-tallest building)<br /> Herkimer Apartments (first building in City w/ elevators, July 1915)<br /> Durand Park (1-block east of <i>Bay Street</i>)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Bruce_Trail" title="Bruce Trail">Bruce Trail</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Niagara_Escarpment" title="Niagara Escarpment">Niagara Escarpment</span> (mountain) <b> Landmarks</b><br /> <i>Note: Listing of neighbourhoods from North to South</i> <br /> <span name="Major_Roads_that_cross_Bay_Street" id="Major_Roads_that_cross_Bay_Street"></span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=North_End%2C_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29&action=edit" class="new" title="North End, (Hamilton, Ontario)">North End</span> - Everything north of the <span href="/wiki/Canadian_National" title="Canadian National">Canadian National</span> Railway tracks<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Central%2C_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Central, (Hamilton, Ontario)">Central</span> - The financial center of <span href="/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario" title="Hamilton, Ontario">Hamilton, Ontario</span><br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Durand%2C_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29&action=edit" class="new" title="Durand, (Hamilton, Ontario)">Durand</span> <b> Communities</b><br /> <i>Note: Listing of streets from North to South.</i><br /> <span name="Roads_that_are_parallel_with_Bay_Street" id="Roads_that_are_parallel_with_Bay_Street"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Burlington_Street_%28Hamilton%29" title="Burlington Street (Hamilton)">Burlington Street</span> West<br /> <span href="/wiki/Barton_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Barton Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">Barton Street</span> West<br /> <span href="/wiki/Cannon_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Cannon Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">Cannon Street</span> West - One way street (Westbound only)<br /> <span href="/wiki/York_Boulevard_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="York Boulevard (Hamilton, Ontario)">York Boulevard</span> - One way street (Eastbound Only)<br /> <span href="/wiki/King_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="King Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">King Street</span> West - One way street (Westbound Only)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Main_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Main Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">Main Street</span> West - One way street (Eastbound Only)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Jackson_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Jackson Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">Jackson Street</span> West<br /> <span href="/wiki/Hunter_Street_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Hunter Street (Hamilton, Ontario)">Hunter Street</span> West - One way street (Westbound Only)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Charlton_Avenue_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Charlton Avenue (Hamilton, Ontario)">Charlton Avenue</span> West - One way street (Westbound Only)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Aberdeen_Avenue_%28Hamilton%2C_Ontario%29" title="Aberdeen Avenue (Hamilton, Ontario)">Aberdeen Avenue</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-27763002427955884662008-04-15T11:47:00.001-04:002008-04-15T11:47:49.069-04:00 <b></b><br /> <i>Grünberg and Grunberg redirect here. For other uses, see <span href="/wiki/Gr%C3%BCnberg_%28disambiguation%29" title="Grünberg (disambiguation)">Grünberg (disambiguation)</span>.</i><br /> <b>Zielona Góra</b> (<span class="IPA audiolink nounderlines" style="white-space: nowrap;"><span href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Pl-Zielona_G%C3%B3ra.ogg" class="internal" title="Pl-Zielona Góra.ogg">[ʑe'lɔna,gura]</span></span> <span class="metadata audiolinkinfo"><small>(<span href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">help</span>·<span href="/wiki/Image:Pl-Zielona_G%C3%B3ra.ogg" title="Image:Pl-Zielona Góra.ogg">info</span>)</small></span>; <span href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</span>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Grünberg in Schlesien</i></span>) is a <span href="/wiki/City" title="City">city</span> in western <span href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</span> with 118,730 inhabitants (2004), situated in the <span href="/wiki/Lubusz_Voivodeship" title="Lubusz Voivodeship">Lubusz Voivodeship</span> (since 1999), previously capital of <span href="/wiki/Zielona_G%C3%B3ra_Voivodeship" title="Zielona Góra Voivodeship">Zielona Góra Voivodeship</span> (1975-1998).<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <b> Wineries</b><br /> <span name="Secondary_Education" id="Secondary_Education"></span><br /> <b> Education</b><br /> <span name="Universities_and_Colleges" id="Universities_and_Colleges"></span><br /> <span href="http://www.zse.zgora.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.zse.zgora.pl/" rel="nofollow">Zespół Szkół Elektronicznych</span><br /> <span href="http://www.zsek.zgora.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.zsek.zgora.pl/" rel="nofollow">Zespół Szkół Ekonomicznych</span><br /> <span href="http://www.jedynka.zgora.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.jedynka.zgora.pl/" rel="nofollow">I Liceum Ogólnokształcące</span><br /> <span href="http://www.lo3.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.lo3.pl/" rel="nofollow">III Liceum Ogólnokształcące</span><br /> <span href="http://www.lo4.zgora.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.lo4.zgora.pl/" rel="nofollow">IV Liceum Ogólnokształcące</span><br /> <span href="http://www.vlo.zg.pl" class="external text" title="http://www.vlo.zg.pl" rel="nofollow">V Liceum Ogólnokształcące</span><br /> <span href="http://www.7liceum.internetdsl.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.7liceum.internetdsl.pl/" rel="nofollow">VII Liceum Ogólnokształcące</span> <b> Secondary Education</b><br /> <span name="Airport" id="Airport"></span><br /> <span href="http://www.uz.zgora.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.uz.zgora.pl/" rel="nofollow">Uniwersytet Zielonogórski w Zielonej Górze</span><br /> <span href="http://www.zwshifm.zgora.pl/" class="external text" title="http://www.zwshifm.zgora.pl/" rel="nofollow">Zachodnia Wyższa Szkoła Handlu i Finansów Międzynarodowych</span> <b> Universities and Colleges</b><br /> The <span href="/wiki/Zielona_G%C3%B3ra_Airport" title="Zielona Góra Airport">Zielona Góra Airport</span> is located at <span href="/wiki/Babimost" title="Babimost">Babimost</span>, north-east of the city. It is currently the 10th busiest airport in Poland. Formerly a military base, it has transformed itself into an important transport hub in Western Poland, <span href="/wiki/LOT_Polish_Airlines" title="LOT Polish Airlines">LOT Polish Airlines</span> currently offers daily flights to <span href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</span>.<br /> <span name="Events" id="Events"></span><br /> <b> Airport</b><br /> <span name="Sport" id="Sport"></span><br /> June/July: Busker Bus festival<br /> August: Festiwal Pieśni i Tańca (Folk Festival)<br /> September: <span href="/wiki/Winobranie_w_Zielonej_G%C3%B3rze" title="Winobranie w Zielonej Górze">Winobranie</span> (Wine Fest) <b> Events</b><br /> The speedway motorcycle club now called ZKZ Kronopol Zielona Gora is famous not only in Poland. It has won the Polish Championship four times - in 1981, 1982, 1985 and 1991. The club was founded in 1946 with its first race on 20th of October 1946. It is commonly referred to as "Falubaz" (name of former sponsor).<br /> Its most famous rider is Andrzej Huszcza - competing since 1975 and won Individual Polish Championship in 1982. After 30 years he left his home town club and joined PSZ, a speedway club from Poznan. Huszcza has set a number of records, including at international level.<br /> Other well-known riders include Piotr Protasiewicz, Grzegorz Walasek, Rafał Kurmanski, Maciej Jaworek, Jaroslaw Szymkowiak, Slawomir Dudek, Henryk Olszak, Jan Krzystyniak, Zbigniew Filipak, Henryk Ciorga, Mieczyslaw Mendyka, Bonifacy Langner, Jerzy Bloch, Alfons Kostusiak, Kazimierz Juzala, Marian Zadon.<br /> <span name="Politics" id="Politics"></span><br /> <b> Sport</b><br /> Members of Parliament (<span href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</span>) elected from this constituency: <span href="http://www.sejm.gov.pl/poslowie/mapa5/4a.htm" class="external free" title="http://www.sejm.gov.pl/poslowie/mapa5/4a.htm" rel="nofollow">http://www.sejm.gov.pl/poslowie/mapa5/4a.htm</span><br /> <span name="Famous_residents" id="Famous_residents"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.um.zielona-gora.pl/binary/dzieje/wydarzenia04/zuzel.jpg" alt="Zielona Góra" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Famous residents</b><br /> <span name="External_links" id="External_links"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg" class="image" title="Flag of Slovakia"><img alt="Flag of Slovakia" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png" width="22" height="15" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Nitra" title="Nitra">Nitra</span>, <span href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</span>,<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" class="image" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/22px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" width="22" height="15" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Troyes" title="Troyes">Troyes</span> (France),<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" class="image" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/22px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" width="22" height="13" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Verden" title="Verden">Verden</span> (Germany),<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" class="image" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/22px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" width="22" height="13" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Cottbus" title="Cottbus">Cottbus</span> (Germany),<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="image" title="Flag of the Netherlands"><img alt="Flag of the Netherlands" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" width="22" height="15" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Helmond" title="Helmond">Helmond</span> (Netherlands),<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg" class="image" title="Flag of Italy"><img alt="Flag of Italy" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/22px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" width="22" height="15" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/L%27Aquila" title="L'Aquila">L'Aquila</span> (Italy),<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Romania.svg" class="image" title="Flag of Romania"><img alt="Flag of Romania" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/22px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" width="22" height="15" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Bistri%C5%A3a" title="Bistriţa">Bistriţa</span> (Romania),<br /> <span href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" class="image" title="Flag of the United States"><img alt="Flag of the United States" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" width="22" height="12" border="0" class="thumbborder" /></span> <span href="/wiki/Aurora%2C_Colorado" title="Aurora, Colorado">Aurora, Colorado</span> (USA) qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-44695546898371885782008-04-14T12:20:00.001-04:002008-04-14T12:20:28.820-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Scouting</b>, also known as the <b>Scout Movement</b>, is a worldwide <span href="/wiki/Youth_movement" title="Youth movement">youth movement</span> with the stated aim of supporting young people in their physical, mental and spiritual development, so that they may play constructive roles in society.<br /> Scouting began in 1907 when <span href="/wiki/Robert_Baden-Powell%2C_1st_Baron_Baden-Powell" title="Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell">Robert Baden-Powell</span>, <span href="/wiki/Lieutenant_General" title="Lieutenant General">Lieutenant General</span> in the <span href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</span>, held the <span href="/wiki/Brownsea_Island_Scout_camp" title="Brownsea Island Scout camp">first Scouting encampment</span> at <span href="/wiki/Brownsea_Island" title="Brownsea Island">Brownsea Island</span> in <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span>. Baden-Powell wrote the principles of Scouting in <i><span href="/wiki/Scouting_for_Boys" title="Scouting for Boys">Scouting for Boys</span></i> (London, 1908), based on his earlier military books, with influence and support of <span href="/wiki/Ernest_Thompson_Seton" title="Ernest Thompson Seton">Seton</span> of the <span href="/wiki/Woodcraft_Indians" title="Woodcraft Indians">Woodcraft Indians</span>, <span href="/wiki/William_Alexander_Smith_%28Boys%27_Brigade%29" title="William Alexander Smith (Boys' Brigade)">Smith</span> of the <span href="/wiki/Boys%27_Brigade" title="Boys' Brigade">Boys' Brigade</span>, and his publisher <span href="/wiki/Cyril_Arthur_Pearson" title="Cyril Arthur Pearson">Pearson</span>. During the first half of the 20th century, the movement grew to encompass three major age groups each for boys (<span href="/wiki/Cub_Scout" title="Cub Scout">Cub Scout</span>, <span href="/wiki/Boy_Scout" title="Boy Scout">Boy Scout</span>, <span href="/wiki/Rover_Scout" title="Rover Scout">Rover Scout</span>) and for girls (<span href="/wiki/Brownie_%28Girl_Guides%29" title="Brownie (Girl Guides)">Brownie Guide</span>, <span href="/wiki/Girl_Guide_and_Girl_Scout" title="Girl Guide and Girl Scout">Girl Guide and Girl Scout</span>, <span href="/wiki/Ranger_%28Girl_Guide%29" title="Ranger (Girl Guide)">Ranger Guide</span>).<br /> The movement employs the <span href="/wiki/Scout_method" title="Scout method">Scout method</span>, a program of informal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities, including <span href="/wiki/Camping" title="Camping">camping</span>, <span href="/wiki/Woodcraft" title="Woodcraft">woodcraft</span>, <span href="/wiki/Aquatics" title="Aquatics">aquatics</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hiking" title="Hiking">hiking</span>, <span href="/wiki/Backpacking_%28wilderness%29" title="Backpacking (wilderness)">backpacking</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">sports</span>. Another widely recognized movement characteristic is the Scout <span href="/wiki/Uniform" title="Uniform">uniform</span>, by intent hiding all differences of social standing in a country and making for equality, with <span href="/wiki/Neckerchief" title="Neckerchief">neckerchief</span> and <span href="/wiki/Campaign_hat" title="Campaign hat">campaign hat</span> or comparable head wear. Distinctive uniform insignia include the <span href="/wiki/Fleur-de-lis" title="Fleur-de-lis">fleur-de-lis</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Trefoil" title="Trefoil">trefoil</span>, as well as <span href="/wiki/Merit_badge" title="Merit badge">merit badges</span> and other patches.<br /> In 2007, Scouting and Guiding together have over 38 million members in 216 countries. The two largest umbrella organizations are the <span href="/wiki/World_Organization_of_the_Scout_Movement" title="World Organization of the Scout Movement">World Organization of the Scout Movement</span> (WOSM), for boys-only and co-educational organizations, and the <span href="/wiki/World_Association_of_Girl_Guides_and_Girl_Scouts" title="World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts">World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts</span> (WAGGGS), primarily for girls-only organizations but also accepting co-educational organizations.<br /> 2007 also marks the <span href="/wiki/Scouting_2007_Centenary" title="Scouting 2007 Centenary">centenary of Scouting</span> world wide, with member organizations planning events all over the world in order to celebrate this event.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <b> Origins</b><br /> The Boy Scout movement swiftly established itself throughout the <span href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</span> soon after the publication of <i>Scouting for Boys</i>. The first recognized overseas unit was chartered in <span href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</span> in 1908, followed quickly by a unit in <span href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</span>. <span href="/wiki/Scouts_Canada" title="Scouts Canada">Canada</span> became the first overseas <span href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">dominion</span> with a sanctioned Boy Scout program, followed by <span href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</span>, <span href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</span> and <span href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</span>. <span href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</span> was the first country outside the British dominions to have a recognized Scouting program. By 1910, <span href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</span>, <span href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</span>, <span href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Finland</span>, <span href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</span>, <span href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</span>, <span href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</span>, <span href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</span>, <span href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</span>, <span href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</span>, the <span href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</span>, <span href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</span>, <span href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</span>, and the United States had Boy Scouts. Baden-Powell wrote a book, <i>Aids to Scoutmastership</i>, to help <span href="/wiki/Leader_%28Scouting%29" title="Leader (Scouting)">Scouting Leaders</span>, and wrote other handbooks for the use of the new Scouting sections, such as Cub Scouts and Girl Guides. One of these was <i>Rovering to Success</i>, written for Rover Scouts in 1922. A wide range of leader training exists in 2007, from basic to program-specific, including the Wood Badge training.<br /> <span name="Influences" id="Influences"></span><br /> <img src="http://g-ec2.images-amazon.com/images/G/02/uk-music/flashplayer/Scouting-For-Girls---Type-n._SX320_CR0,0,0,0_PIen-gb-vendor-play-shuttle-off,BottomLeft,0,43_.jpg" alt="Scouting" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Growth</b><br /> Important elements of traditional Scouting have their origins in Baden-Powell's experiences in education and military training. He was a 50-year-old retired army general when he founded Scouting, and his revolutionary ideas inspired thousands of young people, from all parts of society, to get involved in activities that most had never contemplated. Comparable organizations in the <span href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">English-speaking world</span> are the Boys' Brigade and the <span href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing</span>, non-militaristic <span href="/wiki/Woodcraft_Folk" title="Woodcraft Folk">Woodcraft Folk</span>; however, they were never able to match the development and growth of Scouting.<br /> <span name="Movement_characteristics" id="Movement_characteristics"></span><br /> <b> Influences</b><br /> Scouting is taught using the Scout method, which incorporates an informal educational system that emphasizes practical activities in the outdoors. Programs exist for Scouts ranging in age from 6 to 25 (though age limits vary slightly by country), and program specifics target Scouts in a manner appropriate to their age. It is the use of the Scout method that binds Scouts together, worldwide.<br /> <span name="Scout_method" id="Scout_method"></span><br /> <b> Movement characteristics</b><br /> <i>Main article:</i> <span href="/wiki/Scout_method" title="Scout method">Scout method</span><br /> The Scout method is the principal method by which the Scouting organizations, boy and girl, operate their units. The <span href="/wiki/World_Organization_of_the_Scout_Movement" title="World Organization of the Scout Movement">World Organization of the Scout Movement</span> (WOSM) describes Scouting as "...a voluntary nonpolitical educational movement for young people open to all without distinction of origin, <span href="/wiki/Race" title="Race">race</span> or <span href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creed</span>, in accordance with the purpose, principles and method conceived by the Founder..."<br /> Since the birth of Scouting in 1907, Scouts worldwide have taken a Scout Promise or Oath to live up to ideals of the movement, and subscribe to the Scout Law. The form of the promise and laws have varied slightly by country and over time, but must fulfil the requirements of the WOSM to qualify a National Scout Association for membership.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Scout_Motto" title="Scout Motto">Scout Motto</span>, 'Be Prepared', has been used in various languages by millions of Scouts since 1907. Less well-known is the <span href="/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America#Ideals" title="Boy Scouts of America">Scout Slogan</span>, 'Do a good turn daily'.<br /> <span name="Activities" id="Activities"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Scout_Law" title="Scout Law">Scout Law</span> and <span href="/wiki/Scout_Promise" title="Scout Promise">Scout Promise</span> (Scout Oath)<br /> Learning by doing<br /> Development of small groups<br /> Progressive and attractive programs of different activities <b> Scout method</b><br /> Common ways to implement the Scout method include having Scouts spending time together in small groups with shared experiences, <span href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</span>, and activities, and emphasizing good <span href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</span> and decision-making by young people in an age-appropriate manner. Weekly meetings often take place in local centres known as Scout dens. Cultivating a love and appreciation of the outdoors and outdoor activities is a key element. Primary activities include <span href="/wiki/Camping" title="Camping">camping</span>, <span href="/wiki/Woodcraft" title="Woodcraft">woodcraft</span>, <span href="/wiki/Aquatics" title="Aquatics">aquatics</span>, <span href="/wiki/Hiking" title="Hiking">hiking</span>, <span href="/wiki/Backpacking" title="Backpacking">backpacking</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">sports</span>..<br /> <span name="Uniforms_and_distinctive_insignia" id="Uniforms_and_distinctive_insignia"></span><br /> <b> Activities</b><br /> <i>Individual national or other emblems may be found at the individual country's Scouting article.</i><br /> The Scout <span href="/wiki/Uniform" title="Uniform">uniform</span> is a widely recognized characteristic of Scouting. In the words of Baden-Powell at the 1937 World Jamboree, it "hides all differences of social standing in a country and makes for equality; but, more important still, it covers differences of country and race and creed, and makes all feel that they are members with one another of the one great brotherhood". Lord Baden-Powell's 1922 design for the Medal of Merit added a swastika to the Scout fleur-de-lis to symbolize good luck for the recipient. Like Rudyard Kipling, he would have come across this symbol in India. In 1934, Scouters requested a change to the design because of the later use of the swastika by the <span href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">National Socialist German Workers Party</span>. A new British Medal of Merit was issued in 1935.<br /> <span name="Age_groups_and_sections" id="Age_groups_and_sections"></span><br /> <b> Uniforms and distinctive insignia</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Age_Groups_in_Scouting_and_Guiding" title="Age Groups in Scouting and Guiding">Age Groups in Scouting and Guiding</span></i> <b> Age groups and sections</b><br /> Adults interested in Scouting or Guiding, including former Scouts and Guides, often join organizations such as the <span href="/wiki/International_Scout_and_Guide_Fellowship" title="International Scout and Guide Fellowship">International Scout and Guide Fellowship</span>. In the United States and the <span href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</span>, university students might join the co-ed service <span href="/wiki/Fraternities_and_sororities" title="Fraternities and sororities">fraternity</span> <span href="/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Omega" title="Alpha Phi Omega">Alpha Phi Omega</span>. In the United Kingdom, university students might join the <span href="/wiki/Student_Scout_and_Guide_Organisation" title="Student Scout and Guide Organisation">Student Scout and Guide Organisation</span>, and after graduation, the <span href="/wiki/Scout_and_Guide_Graduate_Association" title="Scout and Guide Graduate Association">Scout and Guide Graduate Association</span>.<br /> Scout units are usually operated by adult volunteers, such as parents and carers, former Scouts, students, and community leaders, including teachers and religious leaders. <span href="/wiki/Scout_Leader" title="Scout Leader">Scout Leadership</span> positions are often divided into 'uniform' and 'lay' positions. Uniformed leaders have received formal training, such as the <span href="/wiki/Wood_Badge" title="Wood Badge">Wood Badge</span>, and have received a warrant for a rank within the organization. Lay members commonly hold part-time roles such as meeting helpers, committee members and advisors, though there are a small number of full-time lay professionals. In some Scout associations, the committee members may also wear uniforms and be registered Scout leaders.<br /> Above the unit are further uniformed positions, called Commissioners, at levels such as district, county, council or province, depending on the structure of the national organization. Commissioners work with lay teams and professionals. Training teams and related functions are often formed at these levels. In the UK and in other countries, the national Scout organization appoints the <span href="/wiki/Chief_Scout" title="Chief Scout">Chief Scout</span>, the most senior uniformed member.<br /> <span name="Around_the_world" id="Around_the_world"></span><br /> <b> Adults and leadership</b><br /> Following its foundation in the United Kingdom (UK), Scouting spread around the globe. The first association outside the UK was opened in Malta. In most countries of the world, there is now at least one Scouting (or Guiding) organization. Each is independent, but international cooperation continues to be seen as part of the Scout Movement. In 1922 the WOSM started as the governing body on policy for the national Scouting organizations (then male only). In addition to being the governing policy body, it organizes the <span href="/wiki/World_Scout_Jamboree" title="World Scout Jamboree">World Scout Jamboree</span> every four years.<br /> In 1928 the WAGGGS started as the equivalent to WOSM for the then female-only national Scouting/Guiding organizations. It is also responsible for the various international centres such as <span href="/wiki/Our_Chalet" title="Our Chalet">Our Chalet</span>.<br /> Today at the international level, the two largest umbrella organizations are:<br /> <span name="Co-educational" id="Co-educational"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/World_Organization_of_the_Scout_Movement" title="World Organization of the Scout Movement">World Organization of the Scout Movement</span> (WOSM), for boys-only and <span href="/wiki/Coeducation" title="Coeducation">co-educational</span> organizations.<br /> <span href="/wiki/World_Association_of_Girl_Guides_and_Girl_Scouts" title="World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts">World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts</span> (WAGGGS), primarily for girls-only organizations but also accepting co-educational organizations. <b> Around the world</b><br /> Worldwide there have been different approaches to co-educational Scouting. Countries such as the USA have maintained separate Scouting organizations for boys and girls.<br /> WAGGGS has 144 Member Organizations and 110 of them belong only to WAGGGS. Of these 110, 17 are co-educational and 93 admit only girls.<br /> <span name="Membership" id="Membership"></span><br /> <b> Co-educational</b><br /> As of 2005, there are over 28 million registered Scouts and 10 million registered Guides around the world, from 216 different countries and territories.<br /> <i>Top 20 countries with Scouting and Guiding, sorted by membership. Full tables on <span href="/wiki/List_of_World_Organization_of_the_Scout_Movement_members" title="List of World Organization of the Scout Movement members">List of World Organization of the Scout Movement members</span> and <span href="/wiki/List_of_World_Association_of_Girl_Guides_and_Girl_Scouts_members" title="List of World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts members">List of World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts members</span>.</i><br /> <span name="Nonaligned_and_Scout-like_organizations" id="Nonaligned_and_Scout-like_organizations"></span><br /> <b> Membership</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Non-aligned_Scouting_and_Scout-like_organisations" title="Non-aligned Scouting and Scout-like organisations">Non-aligned Scouting and Scout-like organisations</span></i> <b> Nonaligned and Scout-like organizations</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Scouting_controversy_and_conflict" title="Scouting controversy and conflict">Scouting controversy and conflict</span></i> <b> Controversy and conflict</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Scouting_in_popular_culture" title="Scouting in popular culture">Scouting in popular culture</span></i> <b> In film and the arts</b><br /> <span name="Notes" id="Notes"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_highest_awards_in_Scouting" title="List of highest awards in Scouting">List of highest awards in Scouting</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_notable_Scouts" title="List of notable Scouts">List of notable Scouts</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Oldest_Scout_Groups" title="Oldest Scout Groups">Oldest Scout Groups</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Outdoor_education" title="Outdoor education">Outdoor education</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scouting" title="Religion in Scouting">Religion in Scouting</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/ScoutLink" title="ScoutLink">ScoutLink</span> IRC Network <b> Notes</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-27195733720090048202008-04-13T11:56:00.001-04:002008-04-13T11:56:26.522-04:00 <b></b><br /> <span href="/wiki/String_instrument" title="String instrument">String instrument</span> (<span href="/wiki/Pizzicato" title="Pizzicato">plucked</span>, nylon stringed guitars usually played with fingerpicking, and steel-, etc. usually with a <span href="/wiki/Guitar_pick" title="Guitar pick">pick</span>.)<br /> The <b>guitar</b> is a <span href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instrument</span> with ancient roots that is used in a wide variety of musical styles. It typically has six <span href="/wiki/Strings_%28music%29" title="Strings (music)">strings</span>, but <span href="/wiki/Tenor_guitar" title="Tenor guitar">four</span>, <span href="/wiki/Seven-string_guitar" title="Seven-string guitar">seven</span>, <span href="/wiki/Eight_string_guitar" title="Eight string guitar">eight</span>, <span href="/wiki/Ten_string_guitar" title="Ten string guitar">ten</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Twelve_string_guitar" title="Twelve string guitar">twelve</span> string guitars also exist.<br /> Guitars are recognized as one of the primary instruments in <span href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</span>, <span href="/wiki/Country_music" title="Country music">country</span>, <span href="/wiki/Flamenco" title="Flamenco">flamenco</span>, <span href="/wiki/Rock_music" title="Rock music">rock music</span>, and many forms of <span href="/wiki/Pop_music" title="Pop music">pop</span>. There is also a <span href="/wiki/Classical_guitar" title="Classical guitar">solo classical instrument</span>. Guitars may be played <span href="/wiki/Acoustic_guitar" title="Acoustic guitar">acoustically</span>, where the tone is produced by vibration of the strings and modulated by the hollow body, or they may rely on an <span href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifier</span> that can electronically manipulate tone. Such <span href="/wiki/Electric_guitar" title="Electric guitar">electric guitars</span> were introduced in the 20th century and continue to have a profound influence on <span href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</span>.<br /> Traditionally guitars have usually been constructed of combinations of various woods and strung with animal gut, or more recently, with either nylon or steel strings. Guitars are made and repaired by <span href="/wiki/Luthier" title="Luthier">luthiers</span>.<br /> <span name="History" id="History"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Bowed_string_instrument" title="Bowed string instrument">Bowed</span> and <span href="/wiki/Plucked_string_instrument" title="Plucked string instrument">plucked</span> string instruments <b> History</b><br /> Guitars can be divided into two broad categories, acoustic and electric:<br /> <span name="Acoustic_guitars" id="Acoustic_guitars"></span><br /> <b> Types of Guitar</b><br /> An acoustic guitar is one not dependent on an external device to be heard. The acoustic guitar is quieter than other instruments commonly found in bands and orchestras so when playing within such groups it is often externally amplified. Many acoustic guitars available today feature a variety of pickups which enable the player to amplify and modify the raw guitar sound.<br /> There are several notable subcategories within the acoustic guitar group: classical and flamenco guitars; steel string guitars, which include the flat top or "folk" guitar; twelve string guitars and the arch top guitar. The acoustic guitar group also includes unamplified guitars designed to play in different registers such as the acoustic bass guitar which has a similar tuning to that of the electric bass guitar.<br /> These are the gracile ancestors of the modern <span href="/wiki/Classical_guitar" title="Classical guitar">classical guitar</span>. They are substantially smaller and more delicate than the classical guitar, and generate a much quieter sound. The strings are paired in courses as in a modern <span href="/wiki/12_string_guitar" title="12 string guitar">12 string guitar</span>, but they only have four or five courses of strings rather than six. They were more often used as rhythm instruments in ensembles than as solo instruments, and can often be seen in that role in <span href="/wiki/Early_music" title="Early music">early music</span> performances. (<span href="/wiki/Gaspar_Sanz" title="Gaspar Sanz">Gaspar Sanz</span>' <i>Instrucción de Música sobre la Guitarra Española</i> of 1674 constitutes the majority of the surviving solo corpus for the era.) Renaissance and Baroque guitars are easily distinguished because the Renaissance guitar is very plain and the Baroque guitar is very ornate, with inlays all over the neck and body, and a paper-cutout inverted "wedding cake" inside the hole.<br /> These are typically strung with nylon strings, played in a seated position and are used to play a diversity of musical styles including <span href="/wiki/European_classical_music" title="European classical music">classical music</span>. The classical guitar is designed to allow for the execution of solo polyphonic arrangements of music in much the same manner as the pianoforte can. This is the major point of difference in design intent between the classical instrument and other designs of guitar. <span href="/wiki/Flamenco_guitar" title="Flamenco guitar">Flamenco guitars</span> are very similar in construction, but are associated with a more percussive tone. In Mexico, the popular <span href="/wiki/Mariachi" title="Mariachi">mariachi</span> band includes a range of guitars, from the tiny <span href="/wiki/Requinto" title="Requinto">requinto</span> to the <span href="/wiki/Guitarron" title="Guitarron">guitarron</span>, a guitar larger than a cello, which is tuned in the bass register. In Colombia, the traditional quartet includes a range of instruments too, from the small bandola (sometimes known as the Deleuze-Guattari, for use when travelling or in confined rooms or spaces), to the slightly larger tiple, to the full sized classical guitar. The requinto also appears in other Latin-American countries as a complemental member of the guitar family, with its smaller size and scale, permitting more projection for the playing of single-lined melodies. Modern dimensions of the classical instrument were established by <span href="/wiki/Antonio_Torres_Jurado" title="Antonio Torres Jurado">Antonio Torres Jurado</span> (1817-1892). Classical guitars are sometimes referred to as classic guitars.<br /> Is a 12 string guitar used in <span href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</span> for the traditional <span href="/wiki/Fado" title="Fado">Fado</span> song. Its true origins are somewhat uncertain but there is a general agreement that it goes back to the medieval period. It is often mistakenly thought of to be based on the so-called "English guitar" - a common error as there is no such thing. For some time the best instruments of this and other types were made in England, hence the confusion. "English guitar" refers to a quality standard, not really an instrument type. This particular instrument is most likely a merge of medieval "cistre" or "citar" and the Arabic lute.<br /> Similar to the <span href="/wiki/Classical_guitar" title="Classical guitar">classical guitar</span>, however, within the varied sizes of the steel-stringed guitar the body size is usually significantly larger than a classical guitar and it has a narrower, reinforced neck and stronger structural design, to sustain the extra tension of steel strings which produce a brighter tone, and according to many players, a louder sound. The acoustic guitar is present in all genres to include folk, country, bluegrass,pop, jazz and blues.<br /> These are steel string instruments which feature a violin-inspired f-hole design in which the top (and often the back) of the instrument are carved in a curved rather than a flat shape. <span href="/wiki/Lloyd_Loar" title="Lloyd Loar">Lloyd Loar</span> of the <span href="/wiki/Gibson_Guitar_Corporation" title="Gibson Guitar Corporation">Gibson Guitar Corporation</span> invented this variation of guitar after designing a style of <span href="/wiki/Mandolin" title="Mandolin">mandolin</span> of the same type. The typical Archtop is a deep,hollow body guitar whose form is much like that of a mandolin or violin family instrument and may be acoustic or electric. Some solid body electric guitars are also considered archtop guitars although usually 'Archtop guitar' refers to the hollow body form. Archtop guitars were immediately adopted upon their release by both <span href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</span> and <span href="/wiki/Country_music" title="Country music">country</span> musicians and have remained particularly popular in jazz music, usually with flatwound strings The electric semi-hollow body archtop guitar has a distinct sound among electric guitars and is consequently appropriate for many styles of pop music. Many electric archtop guitars intended for use in <span href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</span> even have a <span href="/wiki/Tremolo_arm" title="Tremolo arm">Tremolo Arm</span>.<br /> Similar to the flat top guitar in appearance, but with sound produced by a metal resonator mounted in the middle of the top rather than an open sound hole, so that the physical principle of the guitar is actually more similar to the <span href="/wiki/Banjo" title="Banjo">banjo</span>. The purpose of the resonator is to amplify the sound of the guitar; this purpose has been largely superseded by electrical amplification, but the resonator is still played by those desiring its distinctive sound.<br /> <p>Resonator guitars may have either one resonator cone or three resonator cones. Three cone resonators have two cones on the left above one another and one cone immediately to the right. The method of transmitting sound resonance to the cone is either a "biscuit" bridge, made of a small piece of hardwood, or a "spider" bridge, made of metal and larger in size. Three cone resonators always use a specialised metal spider bridge.<br /> The type of resonator guitar with a neck with a square cross-section -- called "square neck" -- is usually played face up, on the lap of the seated player, and often with a metal or glass <span href="/wiki/Slide_guitar" title="Slide guitar">slide</span>. The round neck resonator guitars are normally played in the same fashion as other guitars, although slides are also often used, especially in blues.<br /> These usually have steel strings and are widely used in <span href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</span>, <span href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</span> and <span href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</span>. Rather than having only six strings, the 12-string guitar has pairs, like a <span href="/wiki/Mandolin" title="Mandolin">mandolin</span>. Each pair of strings is tuned either in unison (the two highest) or an octave apart (the others). They are made both in acoustic and electric forms.<br /> These are seven string acoustic guitars which were the norm for Russian guitarists throughout the 19th and well into the 20th centuries. The guitar is traditionally tuned to an open G major tuning.<br /> Have steel strings or gut strings and often the same tuning as an electric <span href="/wiki/Bass_guitar" title="Bass guitar">bass guitar</span>.<br /> There's very sketchy background information about tenor guitars on the World Wide Web. A number of classical guitarists call the Niibori prime guitar a "Tenor Guitar" on the grounds that it sits in pitch between the alto and the bass. Elsewhere, the name is taken for a 4-string guitar, with a scale length of 23" (585 mm) - about the same as a Terz Guitar. But the guitar is tuned in fifths - C G D A - like the tenor banjo or the cello. Indeed it is generally accepted that the tenor guitar was created to allow a tenor banjo player to follow the fashion as it evolved from Dixieland Jazz towards the more progressive Jazz that featured guitar. It allows a tenor banjo player to provide a guitar-based rhythm section with nothing to learn. A small minority of players close tuned the instrument to D G B E to produce a deep instrument that could be played with the 4-note chord shapes found on the top 4 strings of the guitar or ukulele. In fact, though, the deep pitch warrants the wide-spaced chords that the banjo tuning permits, and the close tuned tenor does not have the same full, clear sound.<br /> Harp Guitars are difficult to classify as there are many variations within this type of guitar. They are typically rare and uncommon in the popular music scene. Most consist of a regular guitar, plus additional 'harp' strings strung above the six normal strings. The instrument is usually acoustic and the harp strings are usually tuned to lower notes than the guitar strings, for an added bass range. Normally there is neither fingerboard nor frets behind the harp strings. Some harp guitars also feature much higher pitch strings strung below the traditional guitar strings. The number of harp strings varies greatly, depending on the type of guitar and also the player's personal preference (as they have often been made to the player's specification). <span href="http://www.oddmusic.com/gallery/om23350.html" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.oddmusic.com/gallery/om23350.html" rel="nofollow">[1]</span> The Pikasso guitar; 4 necks, 2 sound holes, 42 strings] and also the Oracle Harp <span href="/wiki/Sympitar" title="Sympitar">Sympitar</span>; 24 strings (with 12 sympathetic strings protruding through the neck) are modern examples.<br /> Drumtars are guitars constructed out of <span href="/wiki/Snare_drums" title="Snare drums">snare drums</span>, which resonate the sound of the strings. They are similar in appearance to <span href="/wiki/Banjos" title="Banjos">banjos</span>.<br /> For well over a century guitars featuring <span href="/wiki/Seven-string_guitar" title="Seven-string guitar">seven</span>, <span href="/wiki/Eight-string_guitar" title="Eight-string guitar">eight</span>, nine, ten or more strings have been used by a minority of guitarists as a means of increasing the range of pitch available to the player. Usually this entails the addition of extra bass strings.<br /> The battente is smaller than a classical guitar, usually played with four or five metal strings. It is mainly used in <span href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</span> (a region in southern Italy) to accompany the voice.<br /> <span name="Electric_guitars" id="Electric_guitars"></span><br /> <b> Acoustic guitars</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Electric_guitar" title="Electric guitar">Electric guitar</span></i> <b> Electric guitars</b><br /> <br style="clear:both;" /><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Headstock" title="Guitar">Headstock</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Nut" title="Guitar">Nut</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Machine_head" title="Machine head">Machine heads</span> (or pegheads, tuning keys, tuning machines, tuners)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Frets" title="Guitar">Frets</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Truss_rod" title="Guitar">Truss rod</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Inlays" title="Guitar">Inlays</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Neck" title="Guitar">Neck</span><br /> Heel (acoustic or Spanish) - Neckjoint (electric)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Body_.28acoustic_guitar.29" title="Guitar">Body</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Pickups" title="Guitar">Pickups</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Electronics" title="Guitar">Electronics</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Bridge" title="Guitar">Bridge</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Pickguard" title="Guitar">Pickguard</span><br /> Back<br /> <span href="/wiki/Sounding_board" title="Sounding board">Soundboard</span> (top)<br /> Body sides (ribs)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Sound_hole" title="Sound hole">Sound hole</span>, with <span href="/wiki/Rosette" title="Rosette">Rosette</span> inlay<br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Strings" title="Guitar">Strings</span><br /> Saddle<br /> <span href="/wiki/Guitar#Fretboard" title="Guitar">Fretboard</span> (or Fingerboard) <b> Guitar construction and components</b><br /> Guitars can be constructed to meet the demands of both left and right-handed players. Traditionally the dominant hand is assigned the task of plucking or strumming the strings. For the majority of people this entails using the right hand. This is because musical expression (dynamics, tonal expression and colour etc) is largely determined by the plucking hand, whilst the fretting hand is assigned the lesser mechanical task of depressing and gripping the strings. This is similar to the convention of the <span href="/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</span> family of <span href="/wiki/Instruments" title="Instruments">instruments</span> where the right hand controls the bow. A minority, however, believe that left-handed people should learn to play guitars strung in the manner used by right-handed people, simply to standardise the instrument.<br /> <b> General</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Headstock" title="Headstock">Headstock</span></i> <b> Headstock</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Nut_%28instrumental%29" title="Nut (instrumental)">Nut (instrumental)</span></i> <b> Fretboard</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Fret" title="Fret">Fret</span></i> <b> Frets</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Truss_rod" title="Truss rod">Truss rod</span></i> <b> Truss rod</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Inlay_%28guitar%29" title="Inlay (guitar)">Inlay (guitar)</span></i> <b> Inlays</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Neck_%28music%29" title="Neck (music)">Neck (music)</span></i> <b> Neck</b><br /> <span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <span href="/wiki/Set-in_neck" title="Set-in neck">Set-in neck</span>, <span href="/wiki/Bolt-on_neck" title="Bolt-on neck">Bolt-on neck</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Neck-thru" title="Neck-thru">Neck-thru</span></i></span><br /> This is the point at which the neck is either bolted or glued to the body of the guitar. Almost all acoustic guitars, with the primary exception of Taylors, have glued (otherwise known as set) necks, while electric guitars are constructed using both types.<br /> Commonly used set neck joints include <span href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">mortise and tenon</span> joints (such as those used by CF Martin & Co. guitars), dovetail joints (also used by CF Martin on the D28 and similar models) and Spanish heel neck joints which are named after the shoe they resemble and commonly found in classical guitars. All three types offer stability. Bolt-on necks, though they are historically associated with cheaper instruments, do offer greater flexibility in the guitar's set-up, and allow easier access for neck joint maintenance and repairs.<br /> Another type of neck, only available for solid body electric guitars, is the <span href="/wiki/Neck-through-body" title="Neck-through-body">neck-through-body</span> construction. These are designed so that everything from the machine heads down to the bridge are located on the same piece of wood. The sides (also known as wings) of the guitar are then glued to this central piece. Some luthiers prefer this method of construction as they claim it allows better sustain of each note. Some instruments may not have a neck joint at all, having the neck and sides built as one piece and the body built around it.<br /> <b> Neck joint or 'Heel'</b><br /> <span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <span href="/wiki/Classical_guitar_strings" title="Classical guitar strings">Classical guitar strings</span></i></span><br /> Modern guitar <span href="/wiki/Strings_%28music%29" title="Strings (music)">strings</span> are manufactured in either metal or organo-carbon material. Instruments utilising "steel" strings may have strings made of alloys incorporating steel, nickel or phosphor bronze. Classical and flamenco instruments have historically used <span href="/wiki/Gut" title="Gut">gut</span> strings but these have been superceeded by nylon and carbon-fibre materials. Bass strings for both instruments are wound rather than monofilament.<br /> Guitar strings are strung almost parallel to the neck, whose surface is covered by the <i><span href="/wiki/Fingerboard" title="Fingerboard">fingerboard</span></i> (<span href="/wiki/Fretboard" title="Fretboard">fretboard</span>). By depressing a string against the fingerboard, the effective length of the string can be changed, which in turn changes the frequency at which the <span href="/wiki/Vibrating_string" title="Vibrating string">string will vibrate</span> when plucked. Guitarists typically use one hand to pluck the strings and the other to depress the strings against the fretboard.<br /> The strings may be plucked using either the fingers or a variety of pick designs mostly associated with acoustic players.<br /> <b> Strings</b><br /> <span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <span href="/wiki/Sound_box" title="Sound box">Sound box</span></i></span><br /> In acoustic guitars, string vibration is transmitted through the bridge and saddle to the body via <span href="/wiki/Sounding_board" title="Sounding board">sound board</span>. The sound board, typically made of tonewoods such as spruce or cedar. Timbers for tone woods are chosen for both strength and ability to tranfer mechanical energy from the strings to the air within the guitar body. Sound which is further shaped by the characteristics of the guitar body's resonant cavity.<br /> In electric guitars, <span href="/wiki/Transducer" title="Transducer">transducers</span> known as <span href="/wiki/Pickup_%28music%29" title="Pickup (music)">pickups</span> convert <span href="/wiki/Vibrating_string" title="Vibrating string">string vibration</span> to an electric signal, which in turn is <span href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplified</span> and fed to speakers, which vibrate the air to produce the sound we hear. Nevertheless, the body of the electric guitar body still performs a role in shaping the resultant tonal signature.<br /> The body of the acoustic instrument is thought to be a major determinant of the overall sound quality. The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element made of <span href="/wiki/Tonewood" title="Tonewood">tonsewoods</span> such as <span href="/wiki/Spruce" title="Spruce">spruce</span> and <span href="/wiki/Red_cedar" title="Red cedar">red cedar</span>. This thin, often only 2 or 3mm thick, piece of wood, strengthened by differing types of internal bracing, is considered by many luthiers to be the dominant factor in determining the sound quality of a guitar. The majority of the instrument's sound is heard through the vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it.<br /> Body size, shape and style has changed over time, 19th century guitars, now known as salon guitars, were smaller than modern instruments. Differing patterns of internal bracing have been used over time by luthiers, (Torres, Hauser, Ramirez, Fleta, and C.F. <span href="/wiki/C.F._Martin_%26_Company" title="C.F. Martin & Company">Martin</span> being among the most influential designers of their time). Bracing not only strengthens the top against potential collapse due to the stress exerted by the tensioned strings, but also affects the resonance characteristics of the top. The back and sides are made out of a variety of timbers such as mahogany, Indian <span href="/wiki/Rosewood" title="Rosewood">rosewood</span> and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (<i>Dalbergia nigra</i>). Each one is primarily chosen for their aesthetic effect and can be decorated with inlays and purfling.<br /> The body of an acoustic guitar has a sound hole through which sound is projected. The sound hole is usually a round hole in the top of the guitar under the strings. Air inside the body vibrates as the guitar top and body is vibrated by the strings, and the response of the air cavity at different frequencies is characterised, like the rest of the guitar body, by a number of resonance modes at which it responds more strongly.<br /> Instruments with larger areas for the guitar top were introduced by Martin in an attempt to create louder volume levels(although tone quality will also be affected by materials used in guitar top size and design). The popularity of the <span href="/wiki/C.F._Martin_%26_Company" title="C.F. Martin & Company">Dreadnought</span> body size amongst acoustic performers is related to the greater sound volume produced.<br /> <b> Body (acoustic guitar)</b><br /> <span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <span href="/wiki/Solid_body" title="Solid body">Solid body</span></i></span><br /> Most electric guitar bodies are made of wood and include a plastic pick guard. Boards wide enough to use as a solid body are very expensive due to the worldwide depletion of hardwood stock since the 70's, so the wood is rarely one solid piece. Most bodies are made of two pieces of wood with some of them including a seam running down the centre line of the body. The most common woods used for electric guitar body construction include <span href="/wiki/Maple" title="Maple">maple</span>, <span href="/wiki/Basswood" title="Basswood">basswood</span>, <span href="/wiki/Ash_tree" title="Ash tree">ash</span>, <span href="/wiki/Poplar" title="Poplar">poplar</span>, <span href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</span>. Many bodies will consist of good sounding but inexpensive woods, like ash, with a "top", or thin layer of another, more attractive wood (such as maple with a natural "flame" pattern) glued to the top of the basic wood. Guitars constructed like this are often called "flame tops". The body is usually carved or routed to accept the other elements, such as the bridge, pickup, neck, and other electronic components. Most electrics have a polyurethane or <span href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</span> lacquer finish. Other alternative materials to wood, are used in guitar body construction. Some of these include carbon composites, plastic material (such as polycarbonate) and aluminium alloys.<br /> <b> Body (electric guitar)</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Pickup_%28music%29" title="Pickup (music)">Pickup (music)</span></i> <b> Pickups</b><br /> On guitars that have them, these components and the wires that connect them allow the player to control some aspects of the sound like volume or tone. These at their simplest consist of passive components such as <span href="/wiki/Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">potentiometers</span> and <span href="/wiki/Capacitors" title="Capacitors">capacitors</span>, but may also include specialized <span href="/wiki/Integrated_circuits" title="Integrated circuits">integrated circuits</span> or other active components requiring <span href="/wiki/Batteries" title="Batteries">batteries</span> for power, for preamplification and signal processing, or even for assistance in tuning. In many cases the electronics have some sort of shielding to prevent pickup of external interference and noise.<br /> <b> Electronics</b><br /> The top, back and ribs of an acoustic guitar body are very thin (1-2 mm), so a flexible piece of wood called lining is glued into the corners where the rib meets the top and back. This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints. Solid linings are often used in classical guitars, while kerfed lining is most often found in steel string acoustics. Kerfed lining is also called kerfing (because it is scored, or kerfed to allow it to bend with the shape of the rib).<br /> During final construction, a small section of the outside corners is carved or routed out and then filled with binding material on the outside corners and decorative strips of material next to the binding, which are called purfling. This binding serves to seal off the endgrain of the top and back. Purfling can also appear on the back of an acoustic guitar, marking the edge joints of the two or three sections of the back.<br /> Binding and purfling materials are generally made of either wood or plastic.<br /> <b> Lining, Binding, Purfling</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Bridge_%28instrument%29" title="Bridge (instrument)">Bridge (instrument)</span></i> <b> Bridge</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Pickguard" title="Pickguard">Pickguard</span></i><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirKHNtCVab8s4Bww_6c25RQtxpOB28T-orhC-U2nvU7gm_-p5aUyPBvacAudlYhWTWHswWnaPbYpYJRJ_If9LzDYWIn5jn6Skr2e9O9rdTCmgohb-4Tu7qvCgcsllGlsP3i0_Kdm51Z0I0/s320/Pepe_Romero._Famous_Spanish_Guitar_Music.jpg" alt="Guitar" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Pickguard</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Guitar_tuning" title="Guitar tuning">Guitar tuning</span></i> <b> Tuning</b><br /> <br /> <b> Guitar terminology</b><br /> The Vibrato (pitch bend) unit found on many electric guitars has also had <span href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</span> terms applied to it, such as "tremolo bar (or arm)", "sissy bar", "wang bar", "slam handle", "whammy handle", and "whammy bar". The latter two slang terms led <span href="/wiki/Stompbox" title="Stompbox">stompbox</span> manufacturers to use the term 'whammy' in coming up with a pitch raising effect introduced by popular guitar effects pedal brand "<span href="/wiki/Digitech" title="Digitech">Digitech</span>".<br /> <span href="/wiki/Leo_Fender" title="Leo Fender">Leo Fender</span>, who did much to create the electric guitar, also created much confusion over the meaning of the terms "tremolo" and "vibrato", specifically by misnaming the <span href="/wiki/Tremolo_arm" title="Tremolo arm">"tremolo" unit</span> on many of his guitars and also the <span href="/wiki/Vibrato_unit" title="Vibrato unit">"vibrato" unit</span> on his "Vibrolux" amps. In general, <i>vibrato</i> is a variation in <span href="/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</span>, whereas <i>tremolo</i> is a variation in volume, so the tremolo bar is actually a vibrato bar and the "Vibrolux" amps actually had a tremolo effect. However, following Fender's example, electric guitarists traditionally reverse these meanings when speaking of hardware devices and the effects they produce. See <i><span href="/wiki/Vibrato_unit" title="Vibrato unit">vibrato unit</span></i> for a more detailed discussion, and <i><span href="/wiki/Tremolo_arm" title="Tremolo arm">tremolo arm</span></i> for more of the history.<br /> A distinctly different form of mechanical vibrato found on some guitars is the <span href="/wiki/Bigsby_vibrato_tailpiece" title="Bigsby vibrato tailpiece">Bigsby vibrato tailpiece</span>, commonly called Bigsby. This vibrato wraps the strings around a horizontal bar, which is then rotated with a handle by the musician.<br /> Another type of pitch bender is the <span href="/wiki/B-Bender" title="B-Bender">B-Bender</span>, a spring and lever device mounted in an internal cavity of a solid body electric, guitar that allows the guitarist to bend just the B string of the guitar using a lever connected to the strap handle of the guitar. The resulting pitch bend is evocative of the sound of the <span href="/wiki/Pedal_steel_guitar" title="Pedal steel guitar">pedal steel guitar</span>.<br /> <b> Vibrato Arm</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Capo" title="Capo">Capo</span></i> <b> Capotasto</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Slide_Guitar" title="Slide Guitar">Slide Guitar</span></i> <b> Slides</b><br /> <br /> <div class="noprint"><i>Main article: <span href="/wiki/Guitar_pick" title="Guitar pick">Guitar pick</span></i> <b> Plectrum</b><br /> <br /> <span href="/wiki/William_R._Cumpiano" title="William R. Cumpiano">William R. Cumpiano</span> <b> Notes</b><br /> <span href="http://www.stringdancer.net/articles/flamenco.html" class="external text" title="http://www.stringdancer.net/articles/flamenco.html" rel="nofollow">Flamenco! The Guitar and the Music</span> - An Indiana University research paper on Flamenco, the indigenous music of the Gypsies of southern Spain, written by <span href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:StringDancer" class="external text" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:StringDancer" rel="nofollow">Jeff Foster</span>, 1987.<br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-88427727798716469252008-04-12T11:14:00.001-04:002008-04-12T11:14:44.468-04:00 <b> Introduction</b><br /> Occitan poetry first appeared in the eleventh century. The eldest surviving text is the Provençal <span href="/wiki/Burden" title="Burden">burden</span> (Fr. "refrain") attached to a <span href="/wiki/Tenth_century" title="Tenth century">tenth century</span> Latin poem. he makes an allusion to the <span href="/wiki/Partimen" title="Partimen">partimen</span>.<br /> The origins of this poetry are uncertain. It bears no relation to <span href="/wiki/Latin_poetry" title="Latin poetry">Latin poetry</span>, nor to folklore. Vernacular compositions seem to have been at first produced for the amusement, or in the case of religious poetry, for the edification, of that part of lay society which had leisure and lands, and reckoned intellectual pastime among the good things of life.<br /> In the eleventh century vernacular poetry served mainly the amusement and edification of the upper class. By the 12th and 13th centuries, historical works and popular treatises on contemporary science were composed in the vernacular.<br /> Occitan poetry may have originated amongst the <span href="/wiki/Jester" title="Jester">jesters</span>. Some, leaving <span href="/wiki/Jester" title="Jester">buffoonery</span> to the ruder and less intelligent members of the profession, devoted themselves to the composition of pieces intended for singing. In the north, the jesters produced <i><span href="/wiki/Chansons_de_geste" title="Chansons de geste">chansons de geste</span></i> full of tales of battle and combat. In the courts of the southern nobles they produced love songs.<br /> <span name="Poetry_of_the_Troubadours" id="Poetry_of_the_Troubadours"></span><br /> <b> Origin</b><br /> Though he was certainly not the creator of the Occitan lyric poetry, William, count of Poitiers, by personally cultivating it gave it a position of honor, and indirectly contributed in a very powerful degree to ensure its development and preservation. Shortly after him centres of poetic activity made their appearance in various places, first in Limousin and <span href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</span>. In the former province lived <i>Ebolus cantator</i> (a singer named <span href="/wiki/Eble_II_of_Ventadorn" title="Eble II of Ventadorn">Eble</span>), who during the second part of William of Poitiers' life seems to have been brought into relation with him, and according to a contemporary historian, <span href="/wiki/Geoffroy_du_Breuil_of_Vigeois" title="Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois">Geoffroy, prior of Vigeois</span>, <i>erat valde gratiosus in cantilenis</i> ("gave a great deal of pleasure by his songs"). None of his compositions survive; but under his influence <span href="/wiki/Bernart_de_Ventadorn" title="Bernart de Ventadorn">Bernart of Ventadour</span> was trained to poetry, who, though only the son of one of the serving-men of the castle, managed to gain the love of the lady of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Ventadour&action=edit" class="new" title="Ventadour">Ventadour</span>, and when on the discovery of their amour he had to depart elsewhere, received a gracious welcome from <span href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</span>, consort (from <span href="/wiki/1152" title="1152">1152</span>) of <span href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II of England</span>. Of Bernart's compositions we possess about fifty songs of elegant simplicity, some of which may be taken as the most perfect specimens of love poetry Occitan literature has ever produced. Bernart must therefore have been in repute before the middle of the twelfth century; and his poetic career extended well on towards its close.<br /> At the same period, or probably a little earlier, flourished <span href="/wiki/Cercamon" title="Cercamon">Cercamon</span>, a poet certainly inferior to Bernart, to judge by the few pieces he has left us, but nevertheless of genuine importance among the <span href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadours</span> both because of his early date and because definite information regarding him has been preserved. He was a Gascon, and composed, says his old biographer, pastorals according to the ancient custom (<i>pastorelas a la uzansa antiga</i>). This is the record of the appearance in the south of France of a poetic form which ultimately acquired large development. The period at which Cercamon lived is determined by a piece where he alludes very clearly to the approaching marriage of the king of France, <span href="/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France" title="Louis VII of France">Louis VII</span>, with Eleanor of Aquitaine (<span href="/wiki/1137" title="1137">1137</span>). Among the earliest troubadours may also be reckoned <span href="/wiki/Marcabru" title="Marcabru">Marcabru</span>, a pupil of Cercamon, from whose pen we have about forty pieces, those which can be approximately dated ranging from <span href="/wiki/1135" title="1135">1135</span> to <span href="/wiki/1148" title="1148">1148</span> or thereabout. This poet has great originality of thought and style. His songs, several of which are historical, are free from the commonplaces of their class, and contain curious strictures on the corruptions of the time.<br /> We cannot here do more than enumerate the leading troubadours and briefly indicate in what conditions their poetry was developed and through what circumstances it fell into decay and finally disappeared: <span href="/w/index.php?title=Peire_d%27Alvernha&action=edit" class="new" title="Peire d'Alvernha">Peire d'Alvernha</span>, who in certain respects must be classed with Marcabru; <span href="/wiki/Arnaut_Daniel" title="Arnaut Daniel">Arnaut Daniel</span>, remarkable for his complicated versification, the inventor of the <span href="/wiki/Sestina" title="Sestina">sestina</span>, a poetic form for which Dante and <span href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</span> express an admiration difficult for us to understand; <span href="/wiki/Arnaut_de_Mareuil" title="Arnaut de Mareuil">Arnaut de Mareuil</span>, who, while less famous than Arnaut Daniel, certainly surpasses him in elegant simplicity of form and delicacy of sentiment; <span href="/wiki/Bertran_de_Born" title="Bertran de Born">Bertran de Born</span>, now the most generally known of all the troubadours on account of the part he is said to have played both by his sword and his sirveniescs in the struggle between Henry II of England and his rebel sons, though the importance of his part in the events of the time seems to have been greatly exaggerated; <span href="/wiki/Peire_Vidal" title="Peire Vidal">Peire Vidal</span> of Toulouse, a poet of varied inspiration who grew rich with gifts bestowed on him by the greatest nobles of his time; <span href="/wiki/Giraut_de_Bornelh" title="Giraut de Bornelh">Guiraut de Borneil</span>, <i>lo macsire dels trobadors</i>, and at any rate master in the art of the so-called close style (<i>trebar clus</i>), though he has also left us some songs of charming simplicity; <span href="/wiki/Gaucelm_Faidit" title="Gaucelm Faidit">Gaucelm Faidit</span>, from whom we have a touching lament (<i>plaint</i>) on the death of <span href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard Cœur de Lion</span>; <span href="/wiki/Folquet_de_Marselha" title="Folquet de Marselha">Folquet of Marseille</span>, the most powerful thinker among the poets of the south, who from being a merchant and troubadour became an <span href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbot</span>, and finally <span href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Toulouse" title="Bishop of Toulouse">bishop of Toulouse</span> (d. <span href="/wiki/1231" title="1231">1231</span>).<br /> It is not without interest to discover to what social classes the troubadours belonged. Many of them, there is no doubt, had a very humble origin. Bernart of Ventadour's father was a servant, Peire Vidal's a maker of furred garments, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Perdigon&action=edit" class="new" title="Perdigon">Perdigon</span>'s a fisher. Others belonged to the <span href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</span>, Peire d'Alvernha, for example, Peire Raimon of Toulouse, and Elias Fonsalada. Likewise we see merchants' sons as troubadours; this was the case with Folquet of Marseille and <span href="/wiki/Aimeric_de_Peguilhan" title="Aimeric de Peguilhan">Aimeric de Peguilhan</span>. A great many were clerics, or at least studied for the Church, for instance, Arnaut de Mareuil, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Uc_de_Saint_Circ&action=edit" class="new" title="Uc de Saint Circ">Uc de Saint Circ</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Aimeric_de_Belenoi&action=edit" class="new" title="Aimeric de Belenoi">Aimeric de Belenoi</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Brunet&action=edit" class="new" title="Hugh Brunet">Hugh Brunet</span>, <span href="/wiki/Peire_Cardenal" title="Peire Cardenal">Peire Cardenal</span>; some had even taken orders: the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Monk_of_Montaudon&action=edit" class="new" title="Monk of Montaudon">monk of Montaudon</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Gaubert_de_Puicibot&action=edit" class="new" title="Gaubert de Puicibot">Gaubert de Puicibot</span>. Ecclesiastical authority did not always tolerate this breach of discipline. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Gui_d%27Ussel&action=edit" class="new" title="Gui d'Ussel">Gui d'Ussel</span>, canon and troubadour, was obliged by the injunction of the <span href="/wiki/Pontifical_legate" title="Pontifical legate">pontifical legate</span> to give up his song-making; Folquet, too, renounced it when he took orders. One point is particularly striking, the number of monarchs and nobles who were troubadours: <span href="/wiki/Raimon_de_Miraval" title="Raimon de Miraval">Raimon de Miraval</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Pons_de_Capdoill&action=edit" class="new" title="Pons de Capdoill">Pons de Capdoill</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Guilhem_Ademar&action=edit" class="new" title="Guilhem Ademar">Guilhem Ademar</span>, <span href="/wiki/Ellian_du_Cadenet" title="Ellian du Cadenet">Ellian du Cadenet</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Peirol&action=edit" class="new" title="Peirol">Peirol</span>, <span href="/wiki/Raimbaut_de_Vacqueiras" title="Raimbaut de Vacqueiras">Raimbaut de Vacqueiras</span>, and many more. Some of this group were poor knights whose incomes were insufficient to support their rank, and took up poetry not merely for their own pleasure, but for the sake of the gifts to be obtained from the rich whose courts they frequented. A very different position was occupied by such wealthy and powerful people as William of Poitiers, <span href="/wiki/Raimbaut_of_Orange" title="Raimbaut of Orange">Raimbaut d'Aurenga</span>, the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Viscount_of_Saint_Antonin&action=edit" class="new" title="Viscount of Saint Antonin">viscount of Saint Antonin</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Guillem_de_Bergued%C3%A0&action=edit" class="new" title="Guillem de Berguedà">Guillem de Berguedà</span> and <span href="/wiki/Blacatz" title="Blacatz">Blacatz</span>.<br /> The profession was entirely dependent on the existence and prosperity of the feudal courts. The troubadours could hardly expect to obtain a livelihood from any other quarter than the generosity of the great. It will consequently be well to mention the more important at least of those princes who are known to have been patrons and some of them practisers of the poetic art. They are arranged approximately in geographical order, and after each are inserted the names of those troubadours with whom they were connected.<br /> <span name="Occitan_territory" id="Occitan_territory"></span><br /> <img src="http://217.204.10.75/img_bg/ben_oldbooks.jpg" alt="Provençal literature" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Poetry of the Troubadours</b><br /> <span name="Kingdom_of_Aragon" id="Kingdom_of_Aragon"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Guienne" title="Eleanor of Guienne">Eleanor of Guienne</span>, Bernart de Ventadour (Ventadorn)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Henry_Curtmantle" title="Henry Curtmantle">Henry Curtmantle</span>, son of <span href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II of England</span>, Bertran de Born (?)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard Coeur de Lion</span>, Arnaut Daniel, Peire Vidal, Folquet of Marseille, Gaucelm Faidit<br /> <span href="/wiki/Ermengarde_of_Narbonne" title="Ermengarde of Narbonne">Ermengarde of Narbonne</span> (1143-1192), Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, Peire d'Alvernha<br /> <span href="/wiki/Raymond_V_of_Toulouse" title="Raymond V of Toulouse">Raimon V</span>, <span href="/wiki/Count_of_Toulouse" title="Count of Toulouse">count of Toulouse</span> (1143-1194), Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, Peire Raitnon, Hugh Brunet, Peire Vidal, Folquet of Marseille, Bernart de Durfort<br /> <span href="/wiki/Raymond_VI_of_Toulouse" title="Raymond VI of Toulouse">Raimon VI</span>, count of Toulouse (1194-1222), Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de Peguihan, Aimeric de Belenoi, Ademar le Negre, Savaric de Malleo<br /> <span href="/wiki/Alfonso_II%2C_Count_of_Provence" title="Alfonso II, Count of Provence">Alphonse II</span>, <span href="/wiki/Count_of_Provence" title="Count of Provence">count of Provence</span> (1185-1209), Elias de Barjols<br /> <span href="/wiki/Ramon_Berenguer_IV%2C_Count_of_Provence" title="Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence">Raimon Berenguer IV</span>, count of Provence (1209-1245), Sordello<br /> <span href="/wiki/Raymond_Geoffrey_II_of_Marseille" title="Raymond Geoffrey II of Marseille">Raymond Geoffrey II of Marseille</span> (d. 1192), Peire Vidal, Folquet of Marseille<br /> <span href="/wiki/Maria_de_Ventadorn" title="Maria de Ventadorn">Maria de Ventadorn</span> (d. 1222), Gaucelm Faidit, Gui d'Ussel<br /> <span href="/wiki/William_VIII_of_Montpellier" title="William VIII of Montpellier">William VIII of Montpellier</span> (1172-1204), Peire Raimon, Arnaut de Mareuil, Folquet of Marseille, Guiraut de Calanson, Aimeric de Sarlat<br /> <span href="/wiki/Dalfi_d%27Alvernha" title="Dalfi d'Alvernha">Dauphin of Auvergne</span> (1169-1234), Peirol, Perdigon, Peire de Maensac, Gaucelm Faidit, Uc de Saint Circ<br /> Guillaume de Baux, <span href="/wiki/Prince_of_Orange" title="Prince of Orange">prince of Orange</span> (1182-1218), Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Perdigon<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Savaric_de_Malleo&action=edit" class="new" title="Savaric de Malleo">Savaric de Malleo</span> (1200-1230), Gaucelm de Puicibot, Uc de Saint Circ<br /> <span href="/wiki/Blacatz" title="Blacatz">Blacatz</span>, a Provençal noble (1200-1236), Cadenet, Jean d'Aubusson, Sordello, Guillem Figueira<br /> Henry I, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Count_of_Rodez&action=edit" class="new" title="Count of Rodez">count of Rodez</span> (1208-1222?), Uc de Saint Circ<br /> perhaps Hugh IV, count of Rodez (1222-1274) and Henry II, count of Rodez (1274-1302), Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lunel, Serveri de Girone, Bertran Carbonel<br /> <span href="/wiki/Nunyo_Sanchez" title="Nunyo Sanchez">Nunyo Sanchez</span>, count of Roussillon (d. 1241), Aimeric de Belenoi<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Bernard_IV&action=edit" class="new" title="Bernard IV">Bernard IV</span>, count of Astarac (1249-1291), Guiraut Riquier, Amanieu de Sescas <b> Occitan territory</b><br /> <span name="Kingdom_of_Castile" id="Kingdom_of_Castile"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Alphonse_II%2C_king_of_Aragon" title="Alphonse II, king of Aragon">Alphonse II, king of Aragon</span> (1162-1196), Peire Rogier, Peire Raimon, Peire Vidal, Cadenet, Guiraut de Cabreira, Eliasde Barjols, the monk of Montaudon, Hugh Brunet<br /> <span href="/wiki/Peter_II_of_Aragon" title="Peter II of Aragon">Peter II, king of Aragon</span> (1196-1213), Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Perdigon, Ademar lo Negre, Hugh of Saint Circq<br /> <span href="/wiki/James_I_of_Aragon" title="James I of Aragon">James I, king of Aragon</span> (1213-1276), Peire Cardinal, Bernart Sicart de Maruejols, Guiraut Riquier, At de Mons<br /> <span href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Aragon" title="Peter III of Aragon">Peter III, king of Aragon</span> (1276-1285), Paulet of Marseilles, Guiraut Riquier, Serveri de Girone <b> Kingdom of Aragon</b><br /> <span name="Italy" id="Italy"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Alfonso_IX_of_Castile" title="Alfonso IX of Castile">Alphonso IX, king of Leon</span> (1138-1214), Peire Rogier, Guiraut de Borneil, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Hugh de Saint Circq<br /> <span href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile" title="Alfonso X of Castile">Alphonso X, king of Castile</span> (1252-1284), Bertran de Lamanon, Bonifaci Calvo, Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lund, Arnaut Plages, Bertran Carbonel. <b> Kingdom of Castile</b><br /> The first thing that strikes one in this list is that, while the troubadours find protectors in Catalonia, Castile and Italy, they do not seem to have been welcomed in French-speaking countries. This, however, must not be taken too absolutely. occitan poetry was appreciated in the north of France. There is reason to believe that when <span href="/wiki/Constance_d%27Arles" title="Constance d'Arles">Constance</span>, daughter of one of the counts of <span href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</span>, was married in <span href="/wiki/1001" title="1001">1001</span> to <span href="/wiki/Robert%2C_king_of_France" title="Robert, king of France">Robert, king of France</span>, she brought along with her Provençal jongleurs. Poems by troubadours are quoted in the French romances of the beginning of the <span href="/wiki/Thirteenth_century" title="Thirteenth century">thirteenth century</span>; some of them are transcribed in the old collections of French songs, and the preacher <span href="/wiki/Robert_de_Sorbon" title="Robert de Sorbon">Robert de Sorbon</span> informs us in a curious passage that one day a jongleur sang a poem by Folquet of Marseilles at the court of the king of France. Since the countries of the <span href="/wiki/O%C3%AFl_languages" title="Oïl languages">langue d'oil</span> had a full developed literature of their own, the troubadours generally preferred to go to regions where they had less competition.<br /> The decline and fall of troubadour poetry was mainly due to political causes. When about the beginning of the thirteenth century the <span href="/wiki/Albigensian_War" title="Albigensian War">Albigensian War</span> led by the French king had decimated and ruined the nobility and reduced to lasting poverty a part of the Occitan territories, the profession of troubadour ceased to be lucrative. It was then that many of those poets went to spend their last days in the north of Spain and Italy, where Occitan poetry had for more than one generation been highly esteemed. Following their example, other poets who were not natives of the south of France began to compose in Occitan, and this fashion continued till, about the middle of the thirteenth century, they gradually abandoned the foreign tongue in northern Italy, and somewhat later in <span href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</span>, and took to singing the same airs in the local dialects. About the same time in the Provençal region the flame of poetry had died out save in a few places, <span href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</span>, <span href="/wiki/Rodez" title="Rodez">Rodez</span>, <span href="/wiki/Foix" title="Foix">Foix</span> and <span href="/wiki/Astarac" title="Astarac">Astarac</span> where it kept burning feebly for a little longer. In the <span href="/wiki/Fourteenth_century" title="Fourteenth century">fourteenth century</span> composition in the language of the country was still practised; but the productions of this period are mainly works for instruction and edification, translations from Latin or sometimes even from French, with an occasional romance. As for the poetry of the troubadours, it was dead for ever.<br /> <span name="Form" id="Form"></span><br /> Boniface II, marquis of Montferrat (1192-1207), Peire Vidal, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Elias Cairel, Gaucelm Faidit (?)<br /> <span href="/wiki/Frederick_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</span>, emperor (1215-1250), Jean d'Aubusson, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Guillem Figueira<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Azzo_VI&action=edit" class="new" title="Azzo VI">Azzo VI</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Marquis_of_Este&action=edit" class="new" title="Marquis of Este">marquis of Este</span> (1196 12 12), Airneric de Pegulhan, Rambertin de Buvalelli<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Azzo_VIII%2C_marquis_of_Este&action=edit" class="new" title="Azzo VIII, marquis of Este">Azzo VIII, marquis of Este</span> (1215-1264), Aimeric de Pegulhan. <b> Italy</b><br /> Originally the poems of the troubadours were intended to be sung. The poet usually composed the music as well as the words; and in several cases he owed his fame more to his musical than to his literary ability. Two manuscripts preserve specimens of the music of the troubadours, but, though the subject has been recently investigated, we are hardly able to form a clear opinion of the originality and of the merits of these musical compositions. The following are the principal poetic forms which the troubadours employed. The oldest and most usual generic term is <i><span href="/wiki/Lyrics" title="Lyrics">vers</span></i>, by which is understood any composition intended to be sung, no matter what the subject. At the close of the twelfth century it became customary to call all verse treating of love <i><span href="/wiki/Canso_%28song%29" title="Canso (song)">canso</span></i> the name <i>vers</i> being then more generally reserved for poems on other themes. The <i><span href="/wiki/Sirventesc" title="Sirventesc">sirventesc</span></i> differs from the vers and the canso only by its subject, being for the most part devoted to moral and political topics.<br /> Peire Cardinal is celebrated for the sirventescs he composed against the clergy of his time. The political poems of Bertran de Born are sirventescs. There is reason to believe that originally this word meant simply a poem composed by a <span href="/w/index.php?title=Sirvent&action=edit" class="new" title="Sirvent">sirvent</span> (Latin <i>serviens</i>) or man-at-arms. The sirventesc is very frequently composed in the form, sometimes even with rhymes, of a love song having acquired some popularity, so that it might be sung to the same air.<br /> The <i><b>tenson</b></i> is a debate between two interlocutors, each of whom has a stanza or more generally a group of lines (each group having the same structure) in turn.<br /> The <span href="/wiki/Partimen" title="Partimen">partimen</span> (French <i>jeu parti</i>) is also a poetic debate, but it differs from the tenson in so far that the range of debate is limited. In the first stanza one of the partners proposes two alternatives; the other partner chooses one of them and defends it, the opposite side remaining to be defended by the original propounder. Often in a final couplet a judge or arbiter is appointed to decide between the parties. This poetic game is mentioned by William, count of Poitiers, at the end of the eleventh century. The <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Pastoreta&action=edit" class="new" title="Pastoreta">pastoreta</span></i>, afterwards <i><span href="/wiki/Pastorela" title="Pastorela">pastorela</span></i>, is in general an account of the love adventures of a knight with a shepherdess. All these classes have one form capable of endless variations: five or more stanzas and one or two <span href="/wiki/Envoi" title="Envoi">envois</span>. The <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Dansa&action=edit" class="new" title="Dansa">dansa</span></i> and <i><span href="/wiki/Balada" title="Balada">balada</span></i>, intended to mark the time in dancing, are pieces with a refrain. The <span href="/wiki/Aubade" title="Aubade">aubade</span>, which has also a refrain, is, as the name indicates, a waking or morning song at the dawning of the day. All those classes are in stanzas. The <i><span href="/wiki/Descort" title="Descort">descort</span></i> is not thus divided, and consequently it must be set to music right through. Its name is derived from the fact that, its component parts not being equal, there is a kind of discord between them. It is generally reserved for themes of love. Other kinds of lyric poems, sometimes with nothing new about them except the name, were developed in the Occitan regions; but those here mentioned are the more important.<br /> <span name="Narrative_poetry" id="Narrative_poetry"></span><br /> <b> Form</b><br /> Although the strictly lyric poetry of the troubadours forms the most original part of Occitan literature, it must not be supposed that the remainder is of trifling importance. Narrative poetry, especially, received in Occitania a great development, and, thanks to recent discoveries, a considerable body of it has already become known. Several classes must be distinguished: the <i><span href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chanson de geste</span></i>, legendary or apparently historical, the romance of adventure and the <span href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</span>. France remains emphatically the native country of the <i>chanson de geste</i>; but, although in the south different social conditions, a more delicate taste, and a higher state of civilization prevented a similar profusion of tales of war and heroic deeds, Occitan literature has some highly important specimens of this class.<br /> The first place belongs to <span href="/wiki/Girart_de_Roussillon" title="Girart de Roussillon">Girart de Roussillon</span>, a poem of ten thousand verses, which relates the struggles of <span href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</span> with his powerful vassal the Burgundian <span href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Roussillon" title="Gerard of Roussillon">Gerard of Roussillon</span>. It is a literary production of rare excellence and of exceptional interest for the history of civilization in the 11th and 12th centuries. Girart de Roussillon belongs only within certain limits to the Occitan literature. The recension which we possess appears to have been made on the borders of Limousin and <span href="/wiki/Poitou" title="Poitou">Poitou</span>; but it is clearly no more than a recast of an older poem no longer extant, probably either of French or at least Burgundian origin.<br /> To Limousin also seems to belong the poem of Aigar and Maurin (end of the twelfth century), of which we have unfortunately only a fragment so short that the subject cannot be clearly made out. Of less heroic character is the poem of Daurel and Beton (first half of the thirteenth century), connected with the <span href="/wiki/Cycle_of_Charlemagne" title="Cycle of Charlemagne">cycle of Charlemagne</span>, but by the romantic character of the events more like a regular romance of adventure. We cannot, however, form a complete judgment in regard to it, as the only manuscript in which it has been preserved is defective at the close, and that to an amount there is no means of ascertaining. Midway between legend and history may be classified the Occitan<span href="/wiki/Chanson_of_Antioch" title="Chanson of Antioch">Chanson of Antioch</span>, a mere fragment of which, 700 verses - in extent, has been recovered in <span href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</span> and published in <i>Archives de l'Orient latin</i>, vol. ii. This poem, which seems to have been composed by a certain <span href="/w/index.php?title=Gregoire_Bechada&action=edit" class="new" title="Gregoire Bechada">Gregoire Bechada</span>, mentioned in a twelfth century chronicle and written in Limousin (see G. Paris, in <i>Romania</i>, xxii. 358), is one of the sources of the Spanish compilation <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=La_gran_conquista_de_Ultramar&action=edit" class="new" title="La gran conquista de Ultramar">La gran conquista de Ultramar</span></i>. To history proper belongs the <i><span href="/wiki/Song_of_the_Albigensian_Crusade" title="Song of the Albigensian Crusade">Song of the Albigensian Crusade</span></i>, which, in its present state, is composed of two poems one tacked to the other: the first, containing the events from the beginning of the crusade till <span href="/wiki/1213" title="1213">1213</span>, is the work of a cleric named <span href="/wiki/William_of_Tudela" title="William of Tudela">William of Tudela</span>, a moderate supporter of the crusaders; the second, from 1213 to <span href="/wiki/1218" title="1218">1218</span>, is by a vehement opponent of the enterprise. The language and style of the two parts are no less different than the opinions. Finally, about <span href="/wiki/1280" title="1280">1280</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Guillaume_Anelier&action=edit" class="new" title="Guillaume Anelier">Guillaume Anelier</span>, a native of <span href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</span>, composed, in the <i>chanson de geste</i> form, a poem on the war carried on in <span href="/wiki/Navarre" title="Navarre">Navarre</span> by the French in <span href="/wiki/1276" title="1276">1276</span> and <span href="/wiki/1277" title="1277">1277</span>. It is an historical work of little literary merit. All these poems are in the form of <i>chansons de geste</i>, viz, in stanzas of indefinite length, with a single rhyme.<br /> Gerard of Roussillon, Aigar and Maurin and Daurel and Beton are in verses of ten, the others in verses of twelve syllables. The peculiarity of the versification in Gerard is that the pause in the line occurs after the sixth syllable, and not, as is usual, after the fourth.<br /> Like the chanson de geste, the romance of adventure is but slightly represented in the south; but it is to be borne in mind that many works of this class must have perished, as is rendered evident by the mere fact that, with few exceptions, the narrative poems which have come down to us are each known by a single manuscript only. We possess but three Provençal romances of adventure:<br /> <i><span href="/wiki/Jaufri" title="Jaufri">Jaufri</span></i> (composed in the middle of the thirteenth century and dedicated to a <span href="/wiki/List_of_Aragonese_monarchs" title="List of Aragonese monarchs">king of Aragon</span>, possibly <span href="/wiki/James_I_of_Aragon" title="James I of Aragon">James I</span>), <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Blandin_of_Cornwall&action=edit" class="new" title="Blandin of Cornwall">Blandin of Cornwall</span></i> and <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Guillem_de_La_Barra&action=edit" class="new" title="Guillem de La Barra">Guillem de La Barra</span></i>. The first two are connected with the <span href="/wiki/Arthurian_cycle" title="Arthurian cycle">Arthurian cycle</span>: <i>Jaufri</i> is an elegant and ingenious work; <i>Blandin of Cornwall</i> the dullest and most insipid one can well imagine. The <i>romance of Guillem de La Barra</i> tells a strange story also found in <span href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Boccaccio</span>'s <i><span href="/wiki/The_Decameron" title="The Decameron">Decameron</span></i> (2nd Day, viii.). It is rather a poor poem; but as a contribution to literary history it has the advantage of being dated. It was finished in <span href="/wiki/1318" title="1318">1318</span>, and is dedicated to a noble of <span href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</span> called <span href="/w/index.php?title=Sicart_de_Montaut&action=edit" class="new" title="Sicart de Montaut">Sicart de Montaut</span>.<br /> Connected with the romance of adventure is the novel (in Occitan <i>novas</i>, always in the plural), which is originally an account of an event newly happened. The novel must have been at first in the south what, as we see by the <i>Decameron</i>, it was in Italy, a society pastime with the wits in turn relating anecdotes, true or imaginary, which they think likely to amuse their auditors. But before long this kind of production was treated in verse, the form adopted being that of the romances of adventure <span href="/wiki/Octosyllabic" title="Octosyllabic">octosyllabic</span> verses rhyming in pairs. Some of those novels which have come down to us may be ranked with the most graceful works in Provençal literature; two are from the pen of the <span href="/wiki/List_of_Catalan_people" title="List of Catalan people">Catalan</span> author <span href="/w/index.php?title=Raimon_Vidal_de_Besalu&action=edit" class="new" title="Raimon Vidal de Besalu">Raimon Vidal de Besalu</span>. One, the <i>Castia-gilos</i> (the <i>Chastisement of the Jealous Man</i>), is a treatment, not easily matched for elegance, of a frequently-handled theme the story of the husband who, in order to entrap his wife, takes the disguise of the lover whom she is expecting and receives with satisfaction blows intended, as he thinks, for him whose part he is playing; the other, <i>The Judgment of Love</i>, is the recital of a question of the law of love, departing considerably from the subjects usually treated in the novels. Mention may also be made of the novel of <i>The Parrot</i> by <span href="/w/index.php?title=Arnaut_de_Carcassonne&action=edit" class="new" title="Arnaut de Carcassonne">Arnaut de Carcassonne</span>, in which the principal character is a <span href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">parrot</span> of great eloquence and ability, who succeeds marvellously in securing the success of the amorous enterprises of his master.<br /> Novels came to be extended to the proportions of a long romance. <i><span href="/wiki/Romance_of_Flamenca" title="Romance of Flamenca">Flamenca</span></i>, which belongs to the novel type, has still over eight thousand verses, though the only MS. of it has lost some leaves both at the beginning and at the end. This poem, composed in all probability in <span href="/wiki/1234" title="1234">1234</span>, is the story of a lady who by very ingenious devices, not unlike those employed in the <i><span href="/wiki/Miles_gloriosus" title="Miles gloriosus">Miles gloriosus</span></i> of <span href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</span>, succeeds in eluding the vigilance of her jealous husband. No analysis can be given here of a work the action of which is highly complicated; suffice it to remark that there is no book in <span href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">medieval literature</span> which betokens so much quickness of intellect and is so instructive in regard to the manners and usages of polite society in the thirteenth century. We know that novels were in great favor in the south of France, although the specimens preserved are not very numerous. Statements made by <span href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_da_Barberino&action=edit" class="new" title="Francesco da Barberino">Francesco da Barberino</span> (early part of fourteenth century), and recently brought to light, give us a glimpse of several works of this class which have been lost. From the Occitan territories the novel spread into Catalonia, where we find in the fourteenth century a number of novels in verse very similar to the Provençal ones, and into Italy, where in general the prose form has been adopted.<br /> <span name="Didactic_and_religious_poetry" id="Didactic_and_religious_poetry"></span><br /> <b> Narrative poetry</b><br /> Compositions intended for instruction, correction and edification were very numerous in the south of France as well as elsewhere, and, in spite of the enormous losses sustained by Provençal literature, much of this kind still remains. But it is seldom that such works have much originality or literary value. Originality was naturally absent, as the aim of the writers was mainly to bring the teachings contained in Latin works within the reach of lay hearers or readers. Literary value was not of course excluded by the lack of originality, but by an unfortunate chance the greater part of those who sought to instruct or edify, and attempted to substitute moral works for secular productions in favor with the people, were, with a few exceptions, persons of limited ability. It would be out of question to enumerate here all the didactic treatises, all the lives of saints, all the treatises of popular theology and morals, all the books of devotion, all the pious canticles, composed in Occitan verse during the Middle Ages; still some of these poems may be singled out.<br /> <span href="/w/index.php?title=Daude_de_Prades&action=edit" class="new" title="Daude de Prades">Daude de Prades</span> (early thirteenth century), a canon of <span href="/wiki/Maguelone" title="Maguelone">Maguelone</span>, and at the same time a troubadour, has left a poem, the <i>Auzels cassadors</i>, which is one of the best sources for the study of <span href="/wiki/Falconry" title="Falconry">falconry</span>. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Raimon_d%27Avignon&action=edit" class="new" title="Raimon d'Avignon">Raimon d'Avignon</span>, otherwise unknown, translated in verses, about the year <span href="/wiki/1200" title="1200">1200</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Rogier_of_Parme&action=edit" class="new" title="Rogier of Parme">Rogier of Parme</span>'s <i>Surgery</i> (Romania, x. 63 and 496). We may mention also a poem on <span href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</span> by a certain C. (Guilhem?), and another, anonymous, on <span href="/wiki/Geomancy" title="Geomancy">geomancy</span>, both written about the end of the thirteenth century (Romania, xxvi. 825).<br /> As to moral compositions, we have to recall the Boethius poem (unfortunately a mere fragment) already mentioned as one of the oldest documents of the language, and really a remarkable work; and to notice an early (twelfth century?) metrical translation of the famous <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Disticha_de_moribus&action=edit" class="new" title="Disticha de moribus">Disticha de moribus</span></i> of <span href="/wiki/Dionysius_Cato" title="Dionysius Cato">Dionysius Cato</span> (Romania, xxv. 98, and xxix. 445). More original are some compositions of an educational character known under the name of <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Ensenhamenz&action=edit" class="new" title="Ensenhamenz">ensenhamenz</span></i>, and, in some respects, comparable to the English nurture-books.<br /> The most interesting are those of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Garin_le_Brun&action=edit" class="new" title="Garin le Brun">Garin le Brun</span> (twelfth century), Arnaut de Mareuil, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Arnaut_Guilhem_de_Marsan&action=edit" class="new" title="Arnaut Guilhem de Marsan">Arnaut Guilhem de Marsan</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Amanieu_de_Sescas&action=edit" class="new" title="Amanieu de Sescas">Amanieu de Sescas</span>. Their general object is the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Education_of_ladies_of_rank&action=edit" class="new" title="Education of ladies of rank">education of ladies of rank</span>. Of metrical lives of saints we possess about a dozen (see <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, vol. xxxii.), among which two or three deserve a particular attention: the <i>Life of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Sancta_Fides&action=edit" class="new" title="Sancta Fides">Sancta Fides</span></i>, recently discovered and printed Romania, xxxi.), written early in the twelfth century; the <i>Life of <span href="/w/index.php?title=St_Enimia&action=edit" class="new" title="St Enimia">St Enimia</span></i> (thirteenth century), by Bertran of Marseilles, and that of <span href="/w/index.php?title=St_Honorat_of_Lerins&action=edit" class="new" title="St Honorat of Lerins">St Honorat of Lerins</span> by <span href="/w/index.php?title=Raimon_Feraud&action=edit" class="new" title="Raimon Feraud">Raimon Feraud</span> (about 1300), which is distinguished by variety and elegance of versification, but it is almost entirely a translation from Latin. Lives of saints (<span href="/wiki/St_Andrew" title="St Andrew">St Andrew</span>, <span href="/wiki/St_Thomas_the_Apostle" title="St Thomas the Apostle">St Thomas the Apostle</span>, <span href="/wiki/John_the_Evangelist" title="John the Evangelist">St John the Evangelist</span>) form a part of a poem, strictly didactic, which stands out by reason of its great extent (nearly thirty-five thousand verses) and the somewhat original conception of its scheme - the <i>Breviars damor</i>, a vast <span href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedia</span>, on a theological basis, composed by the <span href="/wiki/Minorite" title="Minorite">Minorite</span> friar <span href="/w/index.php?title=Matfre_Ermengaut_of_Bhziers&action=edit" class="new" title="Matfre Ermengaut of Bhziers">Matfre Ermengaut of Bhziers</span> between <span href="/wiki/1288" title="1288">1288</span> and <span href="/wiki/1300" title="1300">1300</span> or thereabout.<br /> <span name="Drama" id="Drama"></span><br /> <b> Didactic and religious poetry</b><br /> The dramatic literature in Occitan belongs entirely to the religious class, and shows little originality. It consists of mysteries and miracle plays seldom exceeding two or three thousand lines, which never developed into the enormous dramas of northern France, whose acting required several consecutive days. Comic plays, so plentiful in medieval French literature (farces, sotties), do not seem to have found favor in the south. Specimens which we possess of Occitan drama are, comparatively few; but researches in local archives, especially in old account books, have brought to light a considerable number of entries concerning the acting, at public expense, of religious plays, called, in Latin documents, <i>Lucius, historia, moralitas</i>, most of which seem to be irretrievably lost. As all the Occitan plays, sometimes mere fragments, which have escaped destruction, are preserved in about a dozen manuscripts, unearthed within the last forty or fifty years, there is hope that new texts of that sort may some day be published. Generally those plays belong to the <span href="/wiki/Fifteenth_century" title="Fifteenth century">fifteenth century</span> or to the <span href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">sixteenth</span>. Still, a few are more ancient and may be ascribed to the fourteenth century or even to the end of the thirteenth. The oldest appears to be the <i>Mystery of St Agnes</i> (edited by Bartsch, 1869), written in Arles. Somewhat more recent, but not later than the beginning of the fourteenth century, is a <i>Passion of Christ</i> (not yet printed) and a <i>mystery of the Marriage of the Virgin</i>, which is partly adapted from a French poem of the thirteenth century, (see Romania xvi. 71). A manuscript, discovered in private archives (printed by Jeanroy and Teulie, 1893), contains not less than sixteen short mysteries, three founded on the <span href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</span>, thirteen on the <span href="/wiki/New_testament" title="New testament">New</span>. They were, written in Rouergue and are partly imitated from French mysteries.<br /> At <span href="/wiki/Manosque" title="Manosque">Manosque</span> (<span href="/wiki/Alpes-de-Haute-Provence" title="Alpes-de-Haute-Provence">Alpes-de-Haute-Provence</span>) was found a fragment of a <i>Ludus sancts Jacobi</i> inserted in a register of notarial deeds (printed by C. Arnaud) of some kind. In <span href="/wiki/1513" title="1513">1513</span> French poems were first admitted in the competitions, and under <span href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</span> (from <span href="/wiki/1679" title="1679">1679</span>) these were alone held eligible. This unfair arrangement, by which some of the leading poets of northern France profited, held good till <span href="/wiki/1893" title="1893">1893</span>, when the town very properly transferred its patronage to a new <i>Escolo moundino</i>, but very soon restored its support to the older institution, on learning that Occitan poetry was again to be encouraged.<br /> In the two centuries that followed the glorious medieval period we have a succession of works, chiefly of a didactic and edifying character, which scarcely belong to the realm of literature proper, but at least served to keep alive some kind of literary tradition. This dreary interval was relieved by a number of religious mystery plays, which, though dull to us, probably gave keen enjoyment to the people, and represent a more popular genre; the latest that have come down to us may be placed between the years <span href="/wiki/1450" title="1450">1450</span>-<span href="/wiki/1515" title="1515">1515</span>. Not only did the literature deteriorate during this period, but dialects took the place of the uniform literary language employed by the troubadours, while the spoken tongue yielded more and more to French. In <span href="/wiki/1539" title="1539">1539</span> <span href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francois I</span>, with the <span href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Villers-Cotter%C3%AAts" title="Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts">Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts</span>, forbade the use of Occitan in official documents a fact that is worthy of note only as being significant in itself, not as an important factor in the decadence of Provençal letters.<br /> On the contrary, just about this time, there are signs of a revival. In <span href="/wiki/1565" title="1565">1565</span> the Gascon, <span href="/wiki/Pey_de_Garros" title="Pey de Garros">Pey de Garros</span>, translated the <span href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</span> into <span href="/wiki/Gascon_language" title="Gascon language">his dialect</span>, and two years later published a volume of poems. His love for his native tongue is genuine, and his command over it considerable; he deplores its neglect, and urges others to follow his example. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Auger_Gaillard&action=edit" class="new" title="Auger Gaillard">Auger Gaillard</span> (c. <span href="/wiki/1530" title="1530">1530</span>-<span href="/wiki/1595" title="1595">1595</span>) does infinitely less credit to his province: the popularity of his light pieces was probably due to their obscenity. More in the spirit of Garros is the charming trilingual <i>Salut</i> composed by the famous <span href="/wiki/Du_Bartas" title="Du Bartas">du Bartas</span> in honor of a visit of <span href="/wiki/Marguerite_de_Valois" title="Marguerite de Valois">Marguerite de Valois</span> to Nrac (<span href="/wiki/1579" title="1579">1579</span>): three <span href="/wiki/Nymph" title="Nymph">nymphs</span> dispute as to whether she should be welcomed in Latin, French, or Gascon, and the last, of course, wins the day.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</span> proper gave birth to a poet of considerable importance in <span href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_Bellaud_de_la_Bellaudire&action=edit" class="new" title="Louis Bellaud de la Bellaudire">Louis Bellaud de la Bellaudire</span> (<span href="/wiki/1532" title="1532">1532</span>-<span href="/wiki/1588" title="1588">1588</span>), of <span href="/wiki/Grasse" title="Grasse">Grasse</span>, who, after studying at <span href="/wiki/Aix-en-Provence" title="Aix-en-Provence">Aix</span>, enlisted in the royal armies, and was made a prisoner at <span href="/wiki/Moulins" title="Moulins">Moulins</span> in <span href="/wiki/1572" title="1572">1572</span>. During his captivity he wrote poems inspired by real love of liberty and of his native country (Don-Don internal, 1584 or 1585). At Aix Bellaud subsequently became the centre of a literary circle which included most of the local celebrities; all of these paid their tribute to the poets memory in the edition of his works published by his uncle, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Paul&action=edit" class="new" title="Pierre Paul">Pierre Paul</span>, himself the author of pieces of small value, included in the same volume (Lous Passatens, obros et rimos, &c., Marseilles, 159~). Even when Bellaud is wholly frivolous, and intent on worldly pleasures only, his work has interest as reflecting the merry, careless life of the time.<br /> A writer very popular in Provence for the light-hearted productions of his youth was <span href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Brueys&action=edit" class="new" title="Claude Brueys">Claude Brueys</span> (<span href="/wiki/1570" title="1570">1570</span>-<span href="/wiki/1650" title="1650">1650</span>), remarkable chiefly for comedies that deal largely with duped husbands (<i>Jardin deys musos provensalos</i>, not published till <span href="/wiki/1628" title="1628">1628</span>). There is a certain charm, too, in the comedies of Claude's disciple, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Gaspard_Zerbin&action=edit" class="new" title="Gaspard Zerbin">Gaspard Zerbin</span> (<i>La Perlo deys niusos et coumedies prouvensalos</i>, <span href="/wiki/1655" title="1655">1655</span>); and those critics who have read the plays of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_de_Cabanes&action=edit" class="new" title="Jean de Cabanes">Jean de Cabanes</span> (<span href="/wiki/1653" title="1653">1653</span>-<span href="/wiki/1712" title="1712">1712</span>) and of <span href="/wiki/Seguin" title="Seguin">Seguin</span> (of <span href="/wiki/Tarascon" title="Tarascon">Tarascon</span>, c. <span href="/wiki/1640" title="1640">1640</span>), still in MS., speak highly of them.<br /> The most consistently popular form of poetry in the south of France was always the novel. There has been no limit to the production of these; but very rarely does the author deserve special mention. An exception must be made in the case of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Saboly&action=edit" class="new" title="Nicholas Saboly">Nicholas Saboly</span> (<span href="/wiki/1614" title="1614">1614</span>-<span href="/wiki/1675" title="1675">1675</span>), who produced the best pieces of this class, both as regards beauty of language and the devotion they breathe. They have deservedly maintained their popularity to the present day. In <span href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</span> four poets have been cited as the best of the age <span href="/w/index.php?title=Goudelin&action=edit" class="new" title="Goudelin">Goudelin</span>, <span href="/wiki/Michel" title="Michel">Michel</span>, <span href="/wiki/Alain-Ren%C3%A9_Lesage" title="Alain-René Lesage">LeSage</span> and <span href="/wiki/Bonnet" title="Bonnet">Bonnet</span>.<br /> This is certainly so in the case of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Goudelin&action=edit" class="new" title="Pierre Goudelin">Pierre Goudelin</span> (province Goudouli, <span href="/wiki/1579" title="1579">1579</span>-<span href="/wiki/1649" title="1649">1649</span>), of Toulouse, the most distinguished name in Occitan literature between the period of the troubadours and that of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Jasmin&action=edit" class="new" title="Jasmin">Jasmin</span>. He had a good classical education, traces of which appear in all his poetry, his language and his manner being always admirable, even where his matter is lacking in depth. He is often called the <span href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Malherbe" title="François de Malherbe">Malherbe</span> of the South, but resembles that writer only in form: his poetry, taken as a whole, has far more sap. Goudelin essayed and was successful in almost every short genre (<i>Lou Ramelet Moundi</i>, <span href="/wiki/1617" title="1617">1617</span>, republished with additions till <span href="/wiki/1678" title="1678">1678</span>), the piece of his which is most generally admired being the stanzas to <span href="/wiki/Henri_IV" title="Henri IV">Henri IV</span>, though others will prefer him in his gayer moods. He enjoyed enormous popularity (extending to Spain and Italy), but never prostituted his art to cheap effects. His influence, especially but not exclusively in the Occitan area, has been deep and lasting. The fame of <span href="/wiki/Jean_Michel" title="Jean Michel">Jean Michel</span>, of <span href="/wiki/N%C3%AEmes" title="Nîmes">Nîmes</span>, rests on the <i>Embarras de la foire de <span href="/wiki/Beaucaire" title="Beaucaire">Beaucaire</span></i>, a poem of astonishing vigour, but deficient in taste. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Sage&action=edit" class="new" title="Daniel Sage">Daniel Sage</span>, of <span href="/wiki/Montpellier" title="Montpellier">Montpellier</span> (<i>Las Foulies</i>, <span href="/wiki/1650" title="1650">1650</span>), was a man of loose morals, which are reflected in nearly all his works: his moments of genuine inspiration from other causes are rare. More worthy of being bracketed with Goudelin is the avocat Bonnet, author of the best among the open air plays that were annually performed at <span href="/wiki/Beziers" title="Beziers">Beziers</span> on <span href="/wiki/Ascension_Day" title="Ascension Day">Ascension Day</span>: a number of these (dated <span href="/wiki/1616" title="1616">1616</span>-<span href="/wiki/1657" title="1657">1657</span>) were subsequently collected, but none can compare with the opening one, Bonnet's <i>Jugement de Paris</i>.<br /> Another very charming poet is <span href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Fizes&action=edit" class="new" title="Nicolas Fizes">Nicolas Fizes</span>, of <span href="/wiki/Frontignan" title="Frontignan">Frontignan</span>, whose <span href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</span>, the <i>Opéra de Frontignan</i> (<span href="/wiki/1670" title="1670">1670</span>), dealing with a slight love intrigue, and an <span href="/w/index.php?title=Idyllic_poem&action=edit" class="new" title="Idyllic poem">idyllic poem</span> on the fountain of Frontignan, show a real poetic gift. A number of Toulouse poets, mostly laureats of the Academy, may be termed followers of Goudelin: of these <span href="/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Boudet&action=edit" class="new" title="François Boudet">François Boudet</span> deserves mention, who composed an <span href="/wiki/Ode" title="Ode">ode</span>, <i>Le Trinfe del Moundi</i> (<span href="/wiki/1678" title="1678">1678</span>), in honor of his native dialect.<br /> The classical revival that may be noted about this time is also generally ascribed to Goudelin's influence. Its most distinguished representative was <span href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_de_Vales&action=edit" class="new" title="Jean de Vales">Jean de Vales</span>, of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Montech&action=edit" class="new" title="Montech">Montech</span>, who made excellent translations from <span href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</span> and <span href="/wiki/Persius" title="Persius">Persius</span>, and wrote a brilliant <span href="/wiki/Burlesque" title="Burlesque">burlesque</span> of the former in the manner of <span href="/wiki/Scarron" title="Scarron">Scarron</span> (<i>Virgile deguisat</i>, <span href="/wiki/1648" title="1648">1648</span>; only four books published). He also composed a pastoral idyll, which, though too long and inclined to obscenity, contains much tender description. The greatest of the pastoral poets was <span href="/w/index.php?title=Frariois_de_Cortete&action=edit" class="new" title="Frariois de Cortete">Frariois de Cortete</span> (<span href="/wiki/1571" title="1571">1571</span>-<span href="/wiki/1655" title="1655">1655</span>), of <span href="/wiki/Prades" title="Prades">Prades</span>, whose comedies, <i>Ramounet</i> and <i>Mircimoundo</i> (published, unfortunately with alterations, by his son in <span href="/wiki/1684" title="1684">1684</span>), are written with such true feeling and in so pure a style that they can be read with real pleasure. A comedy of his dealing with <span href="/wiki/Sancho_Panza" title="Sancho Panza">Sancho Panza</span> in the palace of the Duke has been edited.<br /> It is difficult to understand the enormous popularity of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Daubasse&action=edit" class="new" title="Daubasse">Daubasse</span> (<span href="/wiki/1664" title="1664">1664</span>-<span href="/wiki/1727" title="1727">1727</span>), of <span href="/wiki/Quercy" title="Quercy">Quercy</span>, who belonged to the working classes; he was patronized by the nobility in exchange for <span href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">panegyrics</span>. Gascony produced two typical works in the <span href="/wiki/Seventeenth_century" title="Seventeenth century">seventeenth century</span>: <i>Aders Genthomme gascoun</i> (<span href="/wiki/1610" title="1610">1610</span>) and <i>Dastross Trinfe de la langue gascoune</i> (1642). The former depicts a regular boasting Gascon who distinguishes himself in everything; while the latter is a plea in favor of the Gascon tongue, inspired by a genuine love of country. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Gabriel_Bedout&action=edit" class="new" title="Gabriel Bedout">Gabriel Bedout</span> (<i>Parterre gascoun</i>, <span href="/wiki/1642" title="1642">1642</span>) is chiefly noted for his <i>amorous solitari</i>, called forth by the sufferings he endured from a hardhearted mistress. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_Baron&action=edit" class="new" title="Louis Baron">Louis Baron</span> (b. <span href="/wiki/1612" title="1612">1612</span>), living peacefully in his native village of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Pouyloubrin&action=edit" class="new" title="Pouyloubrin">Pouyloubrin</span>, celebrated it with great tenderness.<br /> In the <span href="/wiki/Eighteenth_century" title="Eighteenth century">eighteenth century</span> the number of authors is much larger, but the bulk of good work produced is not equally great in proportion. The priests are mainly responsible for the literary output of Languedoc. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Peyrot&action=edit" class="new" title="Claude Peyrot">Claude Peyrot</span> (<span href="/wiki/1709" title="1709">1709</span>-<span href="/wiki/1795" title="1795">1795</span>) one of them, celebrates his county with true rural spirit in the <i>Printenzps rouergat</i> and <i>Quartre sosous</i>. But the chief of the band is the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Abbe_Favre&action=edit" class="new" title="Abbe Favre">Abbe Favre</span> (<span href="/wiki/1727" title="1727">1727</span>-<span href="/wiki/1783" title="1783">1783</span>), the prior of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Celleneuve&action=edit" class="new" title="Celleneuve">Celleneuve</span>, whose <i>Sermoun de moussu sistre</i>, delivered by a drunken priest against intemperance, is a masterpiece. He also wrote a successful mock-heroic poem (<i>Siege de Caderousse</i>) travesties of <span href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</span> and <span href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</span>, a prose novel depicting the country manners of the time (<i>Histoire de Jean lont pris</i>), and two comedies, which likewise give a vivid picture of the village life he knew so well.<br /> Two genuine poets are the brothers <span href="/w/index.php?title=Rigaud_of_Montpellier&action=edit" class="new" title="Rigaud of Montpellier">Rigaud of Montpellier</span>: Augustes (<span href="/wiki/1760" title="1760">1760</span>-<span href="/wiki/1835" title="1835">1835</span>) description of a vintage is deservedly famous; and Cyrille (<span href="/wiki/1750" title="1750">1750</span>-182~) produced an equally delightful poem in the <i>Amours de Mounpei</i>. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Hellies&action=edit" class="new" title="Pierre Hellies">Pierre Hellies</span> of Toulouse (d. <span href="/wiki/1724" title="1724">1724</span>) a poet of the people, whose vicious life finds an echo in his works, has acertain rude charm, at times distantly recalling <span href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Villon" title="François Villon">Villon</span>. In the Province <span href="/w/index.php?title=Toussaint_Gros&action=edit" class="new" title="Toussaint Gros">Toussaint Gros</span> (<span href="/wiki/1698" title="1698">1698</span>-<span href="/wiki/1748" title="1748">1748</span>), of <span href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</span>, holds undisputed sway. His style and language are admirable, but unfortunately he wasted his gifts largely on trivial pieces d'occasion. <span href="/w/index.php?title=Coyes&action=edit" class="new" title="Coyes">Coyes</span> (1711-17~7) comedy, the <i>Franc pare</i>, is bright and still popular, while Germain's description of a visit paid by the ancient gods to <span href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</span> (<i>La Bourrido del Dious</i>, <span href="/wiki/1760" title="1760">1760</span>) has considerable humour. In Gascony the greatest poet is <span href="/w/index.php?title=Cyrien_Despourrins&action=edit" class="new" title="Cyrien Despourrins">Cyrien Despourrins</span> (<span href="/wiki/1698" title="1698">1698</span>-<span href="/wiki/1755" title="1755">1755</span>), whose pastoral idylls and mournful chansons, which he himself set to music, are imbued with tenderness and charm (most of them were collected at <span href="/wiki/Pau%2C_France" title="Pau, France">Pau</span>, in <span href="/wiki/1828" title="1828">1828</span>).<br /> The <span href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</span> produced a large body of literature, but nothing of lasting interest. However, it gave an impetus to thought in the Occitan area, as elsewhere; and there, as elsewhere, it called forth a spirit of independence that was all in favor of a literary revival. Scholars of the stamp of <span href="/wiki/Raynouard" title="Raynouard">Raynouard</span> (<span href="/wiki/1761" title="1761">1761</span>-<span href="/wiki/1863" title="1863">1863</span>), of Aix, occupied themselves with the brilliant literary traditions of the Middle Ages; newspapers sprang up (the Provençal <i>Bouil-Abaisso</i>, started by <span href="/w/index.php?title=D%C3%A9sanat&action=edit" class="new" title="Désanat">Désanat</span>, and the bilingual <i>Lou Tambourin et le ménestrel</i>, edited by <span href="/wiki/Bellot" title="Bellot">Bellot</span>, both in <span href="/wiki/1842" title="1842">1842</span>); poets banded together and collected their pieces in volume form (thus, the nine iroubaire who published <i>Lou Bouquet prouvençaou</i> in <span href="/wiki/1823" title="1823">1823</span>).<br /> <span name="Felibrige" id="Felibrige"></span><br /> <b> Drama</b><br /> Much has been written about the precurseurs de <span href="/wiki/Felibrige" title="Felibrige">Felibrige</span>, and critics are sorely at variance as to the writers that most deserve this appellation. We shall not go far wrong if we include in the list <span href="/w/index.php?title=Hyacinthe_Morel&action=edit" class="new" title="Hyacinthe Morel">Hyacinthe Morel</span> (<span href="/wiki/1756" title="1756">1756</span>-<span href="/wiki/1829" title="1829">1829</span>), of <span href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</span>, whose collection of poems, <i>Lou Saboulet</i>, has been republished by <span href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Mistral" title="Frédéric Mistral">Frédéric Mistral</span>; <span href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_Aubanel&action=edit" class="new" title="Louis Aubanel">Louis Aubanel</span> (17~8-<span href="/wiki/1842" title="1842">1842</span>), of Nîmes, the successful translator of <span href="/wiki/Anacreon_%28poet%29" title="Anacreon (poet)">Anacreon</span>'s <i>Odes</i>; <span href="/w/index.php?title=Auguste_Tandon&action=edit" class="new" title="Auguste Tandon">Auguste Tandon</span>, the troubadour of Montpellier, who wrote <i>Fables, contes et autres pièces en vers</i> (<span href="/wiki/1800" title="1800">1800</span>); <span href="/wiki/Fabre_d%27Olivet" title="Fabre d'Olivet">Fabre d'Olivet</span> (<span href="/wiki/1767" title="1767">1767</span>-<span href="/wiki/1825" title="1825">1825</span>), the versatile literateur who in <span href="/wiki/1803" title="1803">1803</span> published <i>Le Troubadour: Poésies occitaniques</i>, which, in order to secure their success, he gave out as the work of some medieval poet Diou-loufet (<span href="/wiki/1771" title="1771">1771</span>-<span href="/wiki/1840" title="1840">1840</span>), who wrote a didactic poem, in the manner of Virgil, relating to silkworm-breeding (<i>Leis magnans</i>); <span href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Azais&action=edit" class="new" title="Jacques Azais">Jacques Azais</span> (<span href="/wiki/1778" title="1778">1778</span>-<span href="/wiki/1856" title="1856">1856</span>), author of satires, fables, &c.; <span href="/w/index.php?title=D%27Astros&action=edit" class="new" title="D'Astros">d'Astros</span> (<span href="/wiki/1780" title="1780">1780</span>-<span href="/wiki/1863" title="1863">1863</span>), a writer of fables in <span href="/wiki/La_Fontaine" title="La Fontaine">La Fontaine</span>'s manner; <span href="/wiki/Castil-Blaze" title="Castil-Blaze">Castil-Blaze</span> (<span href="/wiki/1784" title="1784">1784</span>-<span href="/wiki/1857" title="1857">1857</span>), who found time, amidst his musical pursuits, to compose Provençal poems, intended to be set to music; the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Marquis_de_Fare-Alais&action=edit" class="new" title="Marquis de Fare-Alais">Marquis de Fare-Alais</span> (<span href="/wiki/1791" title="1791">1791</span>-<span href="/wiki/1846" title="1846">1846</span>), author of some light satirical tales (<i>Las Castagnados</i>).<br /> While these writers were all more or less academic, and appealed to the cultured few, four poets of the people addressed a far wider public: <span href="/wiki/Verdi" title="Verdi">Verdi</span> (<span href="/wiki/1779" title="1779">1779</span>-<span href="/wiki/1820" title="1820">1820</span>), of <span href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</span>, who wrote comic and satirical pieces; <span href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Reboul&action=edit" class="new" title="Jean Reboul">Jean Reboul</span> (<span href="/wiki/1796" title="1796">1796</span>-<span href="/wiki/1864" title="1864">1864</span>), the baker of Nîmes, who never surpassed his first effort, <i>L'Ange à l'enfant</i> (<span href="/wiki/1828" title="1828">1828</span>); <span href="/w/index.php?title=Victor_Gelu&action=edit" class="new" title="Victor Gelu">Victor Gelu</span> (<span href="/wiki/1806" title="1806">1806</span>-188~), relentless and brutal, but undeniably powerful of his kind (<i>Fenian ci Grouman; dix chansons provençales</i>, <span href="/wiki/1840" title="1840">1840</span>); and, greatest of them all, the true and acknowledged forerunner of the felibres, <span href="/wiki/Jacques_Jasmin" title="Jacques Jasmin">Jacques Jasmin</span> (<span href="/wiki/1798" title="1798">1798</span>-<span href="/wiki/1864" title="1864">1864</span>), the hairdresser of <span href="/wiki/Agen" title="Agen">Agen</span>, whose poems, both lyrical and narrative, continue to find favour with men of the highest culture and literary attainments, as with the villagers for whom they were primarily intended.<br /> While much of this literature was still in the making, an event took place which was destined to eclipse in importance any that had gone before. In <span href="/wiki/1845" title="1845">1845</span> <span href="/wiki/Joseph_Roumanille" title="Joseph Roumanille">Joseph Roumanille</span> (<span href="/wiki/1818" title="1818">1818</span>-<span href="/wiki/1891" title="1891">1891</span>), a gardener's son, of <span href="/wiki/Saint-R%C3%A9my-de-Provence" title="Saint-Rémy-de-Provence">Saint-Rémy</span> (<span href="/wiki/Bouches-du-Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Bouches-du-Rhône">Bouches-du-Rhône</span>), became usher in a small school at Avignon, which was attended by <span href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Mistral" title="Frédéric Mistral">Frédéric Mistral</span>, a native of the same district, then fifteen years of age. The former, feeling the germs of poetry within him, had composed some pieces in French; but, finding that his old mother could not understand them, he was greatly distressed. One of his chief titles to fame is that, together with <span href="/w/index.php?title=Alphonse_Dumas&action=edit" class="new" title="Alphonse Dumas">Alphonse Dumas</span>, he drew the attention of <span href="/wiki/Lamartine" title="Lamartine">Lamartine</span> to Mistral's <i><span href="/w/index.php?title=Mireio&action=edit" class="new" title="Mireio">Mireio</span></i>. Roumanille and Mistral showed their gratitude by republishing the best pieces of these two precurseurs, together with those of Castil-Blaze and others, in <i>Un Liame de Rasin</i> (<span href="/wiki/1865" title="1865">1865</span>) and determined thenceforth to write in his native dialect only. These poems revealed a new world to young Mistral, and spurred him on to the resolve that became the one purpose of his life "de remettre en lumière et conscience de sa gloire cette noble race que Mirabeau nomme encore la nation provençale".<br /> No doubt Mistral's is the more puissant personality, and that his finest work towers above that of his fellows; but in studying the Provençal <span href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">renaissance</span>, Roumanille's great claims should not be overlooked, and they have never been put forward with more force than by Mistral himself (in the <i>preface to his Isclos doro</i>). Roumanille's secular verse cannot fail to appeal to every lover of pure and sincere poetry (<i>Li Mar gariiedo</i>, <span href="/wiki/1836" title="1836">1836</span>-<span href="/wiki/1847" title="1847">1847</span>; <i>Li Sounjarello</i>, <span href="/wiki/1852" title="1852">1852</span>; <i>Li Flour de Sauvi</i>, <span href="/wiki/1850" title="1850">1850</span>, <span href="/wiki/1859" title="1859">1859</span>, &c.), his novels are second only to those of <span href="/w/index.php?title=Saboly&action=edit" class="new" title="Saboly">Saboly</span>, his prose works (such as <i>Lou mege de Cucugnan</i>, <span href="/wiki/1863" title="1863">1863</span>) sparkling with delightful humour. He it was who in <span href="/wiki/1852" title="1852">1852</span> collected and published <i>Li Prouvençalo</i>, an anthology in which all the names yet to become famous, and most of those famous already (such as Jasmin), are represented. In <span href="/wiki/1853" title="1853">1853</span> he was one of the enthusiastic circle that had gathered round <span href="/w/index.php?title=J.B._Gaut&action=edit" class="new" title="J.B. Gaut">J.B. Gaut</span> at Aix, and whose literary output is contained in the <i>Roumavagi dci Troubaire</i> and in the short lived journal <i>Lou gay saber</i> (<span href="/wiki/1854" title="1854">1854</span>).<br /> At the same time the first attempt at regulating the orthography of Provençal was made by him (in the introduction to his play, <i>La Part dou bon Dieu</i>, <span href="/wiki/1853" title="1853">1853</span>). And in <span href="/wiki/1854" title="1854">1854</span> he was one of the seven poets who, on <span href="/wiki/May_21" title="May 21">May 21</span>, foregathered at the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Castle_of_Fontsgugne&action=edit" class="new" title="Castle of Fontsgugne">castle of Fontsgugne</span>, near Avignon, and founded the <span href="/wiki/Felibrige" title="Felibrige">Felibrige</span>. The etymology of this word has given rise to much speculation: the one thing certain about the word is that Mistral came across it in an old Provençal poem, which tells how the <span href="/wiki/Virgin" title="Virgin">Virgin</span> meets <span href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</span> in the Temple, among the seven <i>felibres</i> of the law. The outlines of the constitution, as finally settled in <span href="/wiki/1876" title="1876">1876</span>, are as follows:<br /> The region of the Felibrige is divided into four mantenenço (Provence, Languedoc, <span href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</span> and Catalonia 2). At the head of all is a consistori of fifty (called <i>majourau</i>), presided over by the <i>Capoulié</i>, who is chief of the entire Felibrige. The head of each mantenenço is called <i>sendi</i> (who is at the same time a <i>majourau</i>); and at the head of each school (as the subdivisions of the mantenenço are called) is a <i>cabiscòu</i>. The ordinary members, unlimited in number, are <i>mantenire</i>. Annual meetings and fetes are organized. The most widely read of the Felibrige publications is the <i>Armana prouvençau</i>, which has appeared annually since, maintaining all the while its original scope and purpose; and though unpretentious in form, it contains much of the best work of the school. The other six were Mistral, <span href="/wiki/Theodore_Aubanel" title="Theodore Aubanel">Theodore Aubanel</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Anselme_Mathieu&action=edit" class="new" title="Anselme Mathieu">Anselme Mathieu</span> (a school fellow of Mistral's at Avignon), <span href="/w/index.php?title=E._Garcin&action=edit" class="new" title="E. Garcin">E. Garcin</span>, <span href="/w/index.php?title=Alphonse_Tavan&action=edit" class="new" title="Alphonse Tavan">Alphonse Tavan</span> and <span href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Gi%C3%A9ra&action=edit" class="new" title="Paul Giéra">Paul Giéra</span> (owner of the castle). Of these, Theodore Aubanel (<span href="/wiki/1829" title="1829">1829</span>-<span href="/wiki/1886" title="1886">1886</span>), of Avignon, son of a printer and following the same calling, has alone proved himself worthy to rank with Mistral and Roumanille.<br /> Zani, the girl of his youthful and passionate love, took the veil; and this event cast a shadow over his whole life, and determined the character of all his poetry (<i>La miougrano entre-duberto</i>, <span href="/wiki/1860" title="1860">1860</span>; <i>Li Fiho d'Avignoun</i>, <span href="/wiki/1883" title="1883">1883</span>). His is, without a doubt, the deepest nature and temperament among the felibres, and his lyrics are the most poignant. He has a keen sense of physical beauty in woman, and his verse is replete with suppressed passion, but he never sinks to sensuality. His powerful love drama <i>Lou pau dou peccat</i> was received with enthusiasm at Montpellier in <span href="/wiki/1878" title="1878">1878</span>, and successfully produced (some years later in Arnes version) by Antoine at his Thetre Libreno mean criterion. It is the only play of real consequence that the school has yet produced. We need not do more than glance at the work of the fourth of the group of poets who alone, amidst the numerous writers of lyrics and other works that attain a high level of excellence.<br /> One of the most pleasing features of the movement is the spirit of fraternity maintained by the félibres with the poets and literary men of northern France, Catalonia, Italy, <span href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</span>, <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</span> and other countries. In common with so many other productions of the Felibrige, this <i>Almanac</i> is published by the firm J. Roumanille, Libraire-Editeur, Avignon.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Felix_Gras" title="Felix Gras">Felix Gras</span> (<span href="/wiki/1844" title="1844">1844</span>-<span href="/wiki/1891" title="1891">1891</span>) settled at Avignon in his youth. His rustic epic, <i>Li Carbouni</i> (<span href="/wiki/1876" title="1876">1876</span>) is full of elemental passion and abounds in fine descriptions of scenery, but it lacks proportion. The heroic geste of <i>Toloza</i> (<span href="/wiki/1882" title="1882">1882</span>), in which <span href="/wiki/Simon_de_Montfort%2C_5th_Earl_of_Leicester" title="Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester">Simon de Montfort</span>'s invasion of the south is depicted with unbounded vigour and intensity, shows a great advance in art. <i>Li Rouinancero provençal</i> (<span href="/wiki/1887" title="1887">1887</span>) is a collection of poems instinct with Provençal lore, and in <i>Li Papalino</i> (<span href="/wiki/1891" title="1891">1891</span>) we have some charming prose tales that bring to life again the Avignon of the <span href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">popes</span>. Finally, the poet gave us three tales dealing with the period of the Revolution (<i>Li Rouge dóu miejour</i>, &c.); their realism and literary art called forth general admiration.<br /> A few lines must suffice for some of the general aspects of the movement. It goes without saying that all is not perfect harmony; but, on the whole, the differences are differences of detail only, not of principle. While Mistral and many of the best felibres employ the dialect of the <span href="/wiki/Bouches-du-Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Bouches-du-Rhône">Bouches-du-Rhône</span>, others, who have since seceded as the <i>Félibrige latin</i> (headed by <span href="/w/index.php?title=Roque-Ferrier&action=edit" class="new" title="Roque-Ferrier">Roque-Ferrier</span>), prefer to use the dialect of <span href="/wiki/Montpellier" title="Montpellier">Montpellier</span>, owing to its central position. A third class favor the <span href="/wiki/Limousin_language" title="Limousin language">dialect of Limousin</span>, as having been the literary vehicle of the troubadours; but their claim is of the slenderest, for the felibres are in no sense of the word the direct successors of the troubadours. Nearly all the leaders of the Felibrige are <span href="/wiki/Legitimist" title="Legitimist">Legitimists</span> and <span href="/wiki/Catholic" title="Catholic">Catholics</span>, their faith being the simple faith of the people, undisturbed by philosophic doubts.<br /> There are exceptions, however, chief among them the <span href="/wiki/Protestant" title="Protestant">Protestant</span> Gras, whose <i>Toloza</i> clearly reflects his sympathy with the <span href="/wiki/Albigenses" title="Albigenses">Albigenses</span>. Yet this did not stand in the way of his election as Capoulia proof, if proof were needed, that literary merit outweighs all other considerations in this artistic body of men. Finally, it may be noted that the felibres have often been accused of lack of patriotism towards northern France, of schemes of decentralization, and other heresies; but none of these charges holds good. The spirit of the movement, as represented by its leaders, has never been expressed with greater terseness, force and truth than in the three verses set by Felix Gras at the head of his Carbouni: "I love my village more than thy village; I love my Provence more than my province; I love France more than all".<br /> <span name="Late_XXth_century_and_XXIst_century" id="Late_XXth_century_and_XXIst_century"></span><br /> <b> Late XXth century and XXIst century</b><br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Cantiga_de_amigo" title="Cantiga de amigo">Cantiga de amigo</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Jacques_Jasmin" title="Jacques Jasmin">Jacques Jasmin</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/List_of_troubadours" title="List of troubadours">List of troubadours</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Medieval music</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French literature</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-77477788531620322892008-04-11T13:16:00.000-04:002008-04-11T13:17:18.034-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b><span href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</span>'s national coat of arms</b> (or state arms) was introduced on <span href="/wiki/December_3" title="December 3">December 3</span>, <span href="/wiki/1959" title="1959">1959</span> together with the <span href="/wiki/Flag_of_Singapore" title="Flag of Singapore">national flag</span> and <span href="/wiki/Majulah_Singapura" title="Majulah Singapura">national anthem</span> at the swearing-in of the <span href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Negara" title="Yang di-Pertuan Negara">Yang di-Pertuan Negara</span> at the City Hall steps.<br /> <span name="Meaning" id="Meaning"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.geocities.com/inescutcheon/coa_rsg.gif" alt="Coat of arms of Singapore" align="center" style="padding:10px" /><img src="http://lh6.google.com/eastphxman/Rzfj_m50PqI/AAAAAAAAAYw/sB2EVChk4Ic/s800/British_Columbia_Coat_of_Arms.jpg" alt="Coat of arms of Singapore" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Guidelines for Usage</b><br /> 1. The national coat of arms of Singapore (state crest) consists of a shield on which is emblazoned a white crescent moon and five white stars against a red background. Supporting the shield shall be a lion on the left and a tiger on the right. Below the shield shall be a banner with the words "Majulah Singapura" inscribed on it.<br /> 2. The use of the state arms for <span href="/wiki/Advertisement" title="Advertisement">advertisements</span> or any other commercial purpose is prohibited by law. Only government bodies can display the state arms within their premises. Approval must be sought for any other use of the state crest.<br /> 3. The state arms must be treated with <span href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">respect</span> and be displayed in a <span href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">dignified</span> manner.<br /> <span name="External_link" id="External_link"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-66338336737196167932008-04-10T13:28:00.001-04:002008-04-10T13:28:14.684-04:00 <b></b><br /> <b>Robert Garioch Sutherland</b>, (<span href="/wiki/May_9" title="May 9">May 9</span>, <span href="/wiki/1909" title="1909">1909</span> – <span href="/wiki/April_26" title="April 26">April 26</span>, <span href="/wiki/1981" title="1981">1981</span>), was a <span href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</span> <span href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</span> and <span href="/wiki/Translator" title="Translator">translator</span>. His poetry was written almost exclusively in the <span href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots language</span>, he was a key member in the literary revival of the language in the mid-<span href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</span>. However, his biggest influences were the <span href="/wiki/18th_century" title="18th century">18th century</span> poet <span href="/wiki/Robert_Fergusson" title="Robert Fergusson">Robert Fergusson</span> and the <span href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</span> <span href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Belli" title="Giuseppe Belli">Giuseppe Belli</span>.<br /> Garioch was born in <span href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</span>, the son of a decorator and a music teacher, and attended the <span href="/wiki/Royal_High_School_%28Edinburgh%29" title="Royal High School (Edinburgh)">Royal High School</span> before going to the <span href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</span>. He was <span href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscripted</span> into the <span href="/wiki/Royal_Corps_of_Signals" title="Royal Corps of Signals">Royal Corps of Signals</span> in <span href="/wiki/1941" title="1941">1941</span>, and married early the following year. However, whilst serving in <span href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</span> in North Africa, Garioch was captured by <span href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</span> troops in November <span href="/wiki/1942" title="1942">1942</span> and spent the following three years as a <span href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_War" title="Prisoner of War">Prisoner of War</span>.<br /> After Garioch returned to the <span href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</span> in <span href="/wiki/1945" title="1945">1945</span> he became a teacher, a job he held until taking early retirement in <span href="/wiki/1964" title="1964">1964</span>. Following his retirement he worked on a number of Scottish literary magazines, most notably <i>Scottish International</i>. He also spent a number of years in the <span href="/wiki/1970s" title="1970s">1970s</span> as writer-in-residence at Edinburgh University.<br /> Unlike many of his contemporaries, Garioch wrote very little poetry concerning his war experiences (although he did write an autobiography about his time in captivity). Instead he focussed primarily on social causes and the plight of the "wee man", a fact that may account for his enduring popularity (particularly on the readings circuit). These facts, however, have distracted many critics from his extraordinary technical skill and the responsible scholarship of his handling of the Scots language, in which he surpasses all his contemporaries and even his great predecessor <span href="/wiki/Hugh_MacDiarmid" title="Hugh MacDiarmid">Hugh MacDiarmid</span> (of whom he became critical). And there are weightier poems, such as The Big Music, which entirely contradict the cosy persona which he sometimes adopted, and which is more often projected onto him. Aside from his original compositions, Garioch also translated a number of works by other poets into Scots. He translated a number of works by Belli, who was a massive influence on his own poetry, as well as two plays by <span href="/wiki/George_Buchanan_%28humanist%29" title="George Buchanan (humanist)">George Buchanan</span> (which were originally written in <span href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</span>), and works by <span href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</span>, and <span href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</span>.<br /> <img src="http://www.royalmilewhiskies.com/images/categories/glen%2520garioch.jpg" alt="Robert Garioch" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> Robert Garioch is commemorated in Makars' Court, outside The Writers' Museum, Lawnmarket, Edinburgh.<br /> Selections for Makars' Court are made by <span href="/w/index.php?title=The_Writers%27_Museum&action=edit" class="new" title="The Writers' Museum">The Writers' Museum</span>; <span href="/wiki/The_Saltire_Society" title="The Saltire Society">The Saltire Society</span>; <span href="/w/index.php?title=The_Scottish_Poetry_Library&action=edit" class="new" title="The Scottish Poetry Library">The Scottish Poetry Library</span>.<br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-48644586730769625512008-04-09T11:09:00.001-04:002008-04-09T11:09:50.176-04:00<img src="http://www.berwick-upon-tweed.gov.uk/census/images/bamburgh.gif" alt="Bamburgh" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <span id="coordinates"><span href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</span>: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><span href="http://tools.wikimedia.de/~magnus/geo/geohack.php?pagename=Bamburgh&params=55.604_N_1.7222_W_region:GB_type:city" class="external text" title="http://tools.wikimedia.de/~magnus/geo/geohack.php?pagename=Bamburgh&params=55.604_N_1.7222_W_region:GB_type:city" rel="nofollow"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 55°36′14″N 1°43′20″W"><span class="latitude">55°36′14″N</span> <span class="longitude">1°43′20″W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec geo" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 55.604 -1.7222"><span class="latitude">55.604</span>, <span class="longitude">-1.7222</span></span></span></span></span></span><br /> <b>Bamburgh</b> is a large village on the coast of <span href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</span>, <span href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</span>.<br /> It is notable for two reasons: the imposing <span href="/wiki/Bamburgh_Castle" title="Bamburgh Castle">Bamburgh Castle</span>, overlooking the beach, seat of the former <span href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Kings</span> of <span href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</span>, and at present owned by the Armstrong family (see <span href="/wiki/William_George_Armstrong" title="William George Armstrong">William George Armstrong</span>); and its association with the Victorian heroine, <span href="/wiki/Grace_Darling" title="Grace Darling">Grace Darling</span>.<br /> For these reasons, and for its extensive sandy beach which was awarded the <span href="/wiki/Blue_Flag_beach" title="Blue Flag beach">Blue Flag</span> rural beach award in 2005. The <span href="/wiki/Bamburgh_Dunes" title="Bamburgh Dunes">Bamburgh Dunes</span> an area of sand dunes which are a <span href="/wiki/Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest" title="Site of Special Scientific Interest">Site of Special Scientific Interest</span> stand behind the award winning beach. Bamburgh is popular with holidaymakers and is within the <span href="/wiki/Northumberland_Coast" title="Northumberland Coast">Northumberland Coast</span> Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.<br /> Bamburgh Castle, then called <i>Din Guardi</i>, was the capital of the British kingdom of <span href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bryneich</span> between about AD 420 and 547. In 547 the castle was taken by the invading <span href="/wiki/Angles" title="Angles">Angles</span> led by <span href="/wiki/Ida_of_Bernicia" title="Ida of Bernicia">Ida son of Eoppa</span> and was renamed <i>Bebbanburgh</i> by one of his successors, <span href="/wiki/%C3%86thelfrith_of_Northumbria" title="Æthelfrith of Northumbria">Æthelfrith</span>, after Æthelfrith's wife Bebba, according to the <i><span href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</span></i>. From then onwards the castle became the capital of the Anglian kingdom of <span href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</span> until it merged with its southern neighbour, <span href="/wiki/Deira_%28kingdom%29" title="Deira (kingdom)">Deira</span>, in 634. After the two realms united as <span href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</span> the capital was moved to <span href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</span>.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</span> ruled all England (in name) from Bamburgh in 1464, during the <span href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</span>. The castle was eventually reduced by artillery.<br /> <span href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Thomas Malory</span> considered Bamburgh to be <span href="/wiki/Lancelot" title="Lancelot">Lancelot's</span> castle Joyous Gard. The Victorian poet <span href="/wiki/Algernon_Swinburne" title="Algernon Swinburne">Algernon Swinburne</span> agreed and called it "The noblest hold in all the North."<br /> "They saw the help and strength of Joyous Gard,<br /> The full deep glorious tower that stands<br /> Between the wild sea and the broad wild lands..."<br /> Swinburne swam here, as did the novelist <span href="/wiki/E._M._Forster" title="E. M. Forster">E. M. Forster</span> who adopted the Forsters of Bamburgh as his ancestors.<br /> <span name="Notable_people" id="Notable_people"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.claytoncottage.co.uk/resources/_wsb_361x237_Bamburgh%2BFamily.JPG" alt="Bamburgh" align="center" style="padding:10px" /> <b> Notable people</b><br /> <span name="Photos" id="Photos"></span><br /> <span href="/wiki/%C3%86thelfrith_of_Northumbria" title="Æthelfrith of Northumbria">Æthelfrith of Northumbria</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/William_George_Armstrong" title="William George Armstrong">William George Armstrong</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Joe_Baker-Cresswell" title="Joe Baker-Cresswell">Joe Baker-Cresswell</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Grace_Darling" title="Grace Darling">Grace Darling</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">King Henry VI</span><br /> <span href="/wiki/Ida_of_Bernicia" title="Ida of Bernicia">Ida of Bernicia</span> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-46287189961461453712008-04-08T11:33:00.001-04:002008-04-08T11:33:44.011-04:00<img src="http://www.falmadair.com/images/Gallery/Jubilee1980s.jpg" alt="Long-line fishing" align="left" style="padding:10px" /> <b></b><br /> <i>For other meanings of "longline", see <span href="/wiki/Longline" title="Longline">longline</span>.</i><br /> <b>Long-line fishing</b> is a commercial <span href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</span> technique that uses hundreds or even thousands of baited hooks hanging from a single line. <span href="/wiki/Swordfish" title="Swordfish">Swordfish</span>, <span href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">tuna</span>, <span href="/wiki/Halibut" title="Halibut">halibut</span>, <span href="/wiki/Sablefish" title="Sablefish">sablefish</span> and <span href="/wiki/Patagonian_toothfish" title="Patagonian toothfish">Patagonian toothfish</span> are commonly caught by this method. In some unstable fisheries such as that of Patagonian toothfish in <span href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</span>, fishermen may be limited to as few as 25 hooks on a line. In contrast, large commercial long-liners in certain robust fisheries of the Bering Sea and North Pacific generally run over 2500 hand-baited hooks on a single series of connected lines many miles in length. Long-lines can be set to hang near the surface (<span href="/wiki/Pelagic" title="Pelagic">pelagic</span> longline) to catch fish such as tuna and swordfish or along the sea floor (<span href="/w/index.php?title=Demersal&action=edit" class="new" title="Demersal">Demersal</span> longline) for groundfish such as halibut or <span href="/wiki/Cod" title="Cod">cod</span>. Pelagic longlines are the most common commercial fishing gear in the world.<br /> <span name="By-catch" id="By-catch"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7251908688347558024.post-25116431283597212032008-04-07T11:08:00.001-04:002008-04-07T11:08:26.793-04:00 <b></b><br /> The <b>Illinois-Missouri League</b> was an <span href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</span> <span href="/wiki/Minor_league_baseball" title="Minor league baseball">minor league baseball</span> league. It began operations in <span href="/wiki/1908" title="1908">1908</span>, and continued through <span href="/wiki/1914" title="1914">1914</span>.<br /> <span name="1908"></span><br /> <img src="http://www.ballparkwatch.com/images/piedmont_league/norfolk_myers_field_2_detail.jpg" alt="Illinois-Missouri League" align="right" style="padding:10px" /> <b> 1908</b><br /> Hannibal left the league to join the <span href="/wiki/American_Association_%2820th_century%29" title="American Association (20th century)">American Association</span>. The team in Havana folded. Newly formed teams in <span href="/wiki/Beardstown%2C_Illinois" title="Beardstown, Illinois">Beardstown, Illinois</span> and <span href="/wiki/Pekin%2C_Illinois" title="Pekin, Illinois">Pekin, Illinois</span> joined the league.<br /> <span name="1910"></span><br /> <b> 1909</b><br /> The teams from Galesburg and Monmouth joined the <span href="/wiki/Central_Association" title="Central Association">Central Association</span>. New teams in <span href="/wiki/Clinton%2C_Illinois" title="Clinton, Illinois">Clinton, Illinois</span> and <span href="/wiki/Lincoln%2C_Illinois" title="Lincoln, Illinois">Lincoln, Illinois</span> joined the league. Beardstown moved to <span href="/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Illinois" title="Jacksonville, Illinois">Jacksonville, Illinois</span> on July 21, and folded with Macomb on August 17.<br /> <span name="1911"></span><br /> <b> 1911</b><br /> Taylorsville folded. A new team in <span href="/wiki/Streator%2C_Illinois" title="Streator, Illinois">Streator, Illinois</span> formed and joined the league. The Champaign-Urbana Velvets changed their name to the Champaign Velvets. The team from Clinton moved to <span href="/wiki/Kankakee%2C_Illinois" title="Kankakee, Illinois">Kankakee, Illinois</span> on May 16. Its record prior to the move was 2-5; thereafter, they went 54-51.<br /> <span name="1913"></span><br /> <b> 1913</b><br /> New teams in <span href="/wiki/LaSalle%2C_Illinois" title="LaSalle, Illinois">LaSalle, Illinois</span> and <span href="/wiki/Ottawa%2C_Illinois" title="Ottawa, Illinois">Ottawa, Illinois</span> formed and joined the league. Kankakee and Lincoln both folded on July 3, before the season ended.<br /> Ottawa and Streator left the league to join the <span href="/w/index.php?title=Bi-State_League&action=edit" class="new" title="Bi-State League">Bi-State League</span>. The teams in Champaign and LaSalle folded, and the league itself folded.<br /> <span name="References" id="References"></span><br /> qwertyuiohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03604138883136683333noreply@blogger.com